Complementary conjugated polyelectrolyte complexes as electronic energy relays

ABSTRACT

The present invention generally relates to artificial photosystems and methods of their use, for example in artificial photosynthesis, wherein the artificial photosystems comprise one or more light-harvesting antenna (LHA) comprising a conjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) complex (CPEC) comprising a donor CPE and an acceptor CPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPE are an electronic energy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 62/260,862 filed on Nov. 30, 2015 andU.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/275,654 filed on Jan. 6,2016, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention generally relates to artificial photosystems andmethods of their use, for example in artificial photosynthesis.

BACKGROUND

All publications herein are incorporated by reference to the same extentas if each individual publication or patent application was specificallyand individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. Thefollowing description includes information that may be useful inunderstanding the present invention. It is not an admission that any ofthe information provided herein is prior art or relevant to thepresently claimed invention, or that any publication specifically orimplicitly referenced is prior art.

The ever-dwindling supply of fossil fuels has significantly increasedthe urgent need for development of alternative technologies based onsustainable energy sources. This fact has given rise to decades ofresearch into photovoltaic devices that employ a very broad range oforganic and inorganic materials. However, in order for photoelectricenergy conversion to be of maximal utility, the generated electricpotential energy must be stored so that it can be available at timeswhen the incident sunlight intensity is minimal. Unfortunately, chargestorage devices possess a relatively low energy density, makinglarge-scale storage difficult. Due to its intrinsically larger energydensity and its ease of energy storage, a very attractive alternative tophotovoltaic power generation is direct conversion of sunlight intochemical potential energy via synthesis of fuel molecules. In fact, overbillions of years, plants and bacteria have evolved exceedingly complexphotosynthetic machinery based on “soft” macromolecular assemblies thatconduct the four fundamental steps of photosynthesis: light absorption,energy transfer, charge transfer, and catalysis.

With the foregoing background in mind, there is a need in the art forartificial, modular, supramolecular photosystems with a tractable degreeof structural complexity capable of carrying out the fundamentalphotosynthetic processes.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The following embodiments and aspects thereof are described andillustrated in conjunction with systems, compositions, articles ofmanufacture, and methods which are meant to be exemplary andillustrative, not limiting in scope.

In various embodiments, the present invention provides alight-harvesting antenna (LHA), comprising: a conjugated polyelectrolyte(CPE) complex (CPEC) comprising a donor CPE and an acceptor CPE, whereinthe donor CPE and acceptor CPE are an electronic energy transfer (EET)donor/acceptor pair. In some embodiments, the LHA of claim 1, whereinthe CPE complex (CPEC) further comprises a surfactant molecule. In someembodiments, the surfactant molecule is ionic, charged, zwitterionic,non-ionic, lipophilic, lipophobic, hydrophobic, hydrophilic, amphiphilicor amphipathic. In some embodiments, the CPE complex (CPEC) furthercomprises a second or more donor CPEs and/or a second or more acceptorCPEs. In some embodiments, the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE areoppositely charged. In some embodiments, the CPE complex (CPEC) isformed via electrostatic interactions between the donor CPE and theacceptor CPE. In some embodiments, the CPE complex (CPEC) is formed vianon-covalent interactions between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE. Insome embodiments, the donor CPE is a poly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene])(PFP) or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the acceptor CPE isa poly(alkylcarboxythiophene) (PTAK) or a derivative thereof. In someembodiments, the acceptor CPE is a regiorandom PTAK or regioregularPTAK, or a benzodithiophene derivative of PTAK, or a combinationthereof. In some embodiments, the charge ratio between the donor CPE andthe acceptor CPE is about 1:0.25, 1:0.5, 1:1, or 1:2. In someembodiments, the charge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPEis about from 1:0.1 to 1:0.2, from 1:0.2 to 1:0.3, from 1:0.3 to 1:0.4,from 1:0.4 to 1:0.5, from 1:0.5 to 1:0.6, from 1:0.6 to 1:0.7, from1:0.7 to 1:0.8, from 1:0.8 to 1:0.9, or from 1:0.9 to 1:1.0. In someembodiments, the charge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPEis about from 1:1 to 1:2, from 1:2 to 1:3, from 1:3 to 1:4, from 1:4 to1:5, from 1:5 to 1:6, from 1:6 to 1:7, from 1:7 to 1:8, from 1:8 to 1:9,or from 1:9 to 1:10. In some embodiments, the LHA is encapsulated in amembrane, liposome, or vesicle. In some embodiments, the membrane isoleoylphosphatidycholine or a derivative thereof.

In various embodiments, the present invention provides a method ofconducting photosynthesis, comprising: providing a light-harvestingantenna (LHA); and using the LHA in a photosynthetic process, therebyconducting photosynthesis; wherein the LHA comprises a conjugatedpolyelectrolyte (CPE) complex (CPEC) comprising a donor CPE and anacceptor CPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPE are an electronicenergy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair. In some embodiments, thephotosynthesis is artificial photosynthesis. In some embodiments, thephotosynthetic process is an artificial photosynthetic process.

In various embodiments, the present invention provides a method ofmanufacturing a light-harvesting antenna (LHA), comprising: providing adonor CPE solution and an acceptor CPE solution, wherein the donor CPEsolution comprises a donor CPE and the acceptor CPE solution comprisesan acceptor CPE; mixing the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPEsolution to provide a mixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptorCPE solution; and generating a CPE complex (CPEC) of the donor CPE andthe acceptor CPE, wherein the generated CPE complex (CPEC) is themanufactured LHA. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesadjusting a charge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE. Insome embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting an ionicstrength in one or more of the donor CPE solution, the acceptor CPEsolution, or the mixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPEsolution. In some embodiments, the ionic strength is adjusted throughadjusting an amount of a halogen ion, fluorine (F) ion, chlorine (Cl)ion, bromine (Br) ion, iodine (I) ion, or astatine (At) ion, or acombination thereof. In some embodiments, the ionic strength is adjustedthrough adjusting an amount of a salt, a halogen salt, KI, KF, KCl, KBr,or KAt, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the mixture ofthe donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution comprises a liquidphase and a solid phase. In some embodiments, the method furthercomprises separating the liquid phase and the solid phase of themixture. In some embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting asolvent composition of one or more of the donor CPE solution, theacceptor CPE solution, or the mixture of the donor CPE solution and theacceptor CPE solution. In some embodiments, independently one or more ofthe solvent composition comprises water, a nonaqueous component, or acombination thereof. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesadjusting a sidechain charge density of one or more of the donor CPE orthe acceptor CPE. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesadjusting a pH of one or more of the donor CPE solution, the acceptorCPE solution, or the mixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptorCPE solution. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesadjusting a concentration of a surfactant molecule in one or more of thedonor CPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, or the mixture of thedonor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution.

In various embodiments, the present invention provides a reaction center(RC) comprising a complex comprising a water-solublephthalocyanine-based donor and a water-soluble fullerene-based acceptor.In some embodiments, the water-soluble phthalocyanine-based donor is ametal-free phthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid (TSPc) or a derivativethereof.

In various embodiments, the present invention provides a method ofconducting photosynthesis, comprising: providing a reaction center (RC);and using the RC in a photosynthetic process, thereby conductingphotosynthesis; wherein the reaction center (RC) comprises a complexcomprising a water-soluble phthalocyanine-based donor and awater-soluble fullerene-based acceptor. In some embodiments, thephotosynthesis is artificial photosynthesis. In some embodiments, thephotosynthetic process is an artificial photosynthetic process.

In various embodiments, the present invention provides an artificialphotosystem, comprising: one or more light-harvesting antenna (LHA)comprising a conjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) complex (CPEC) comprisinga donor CPE and an acceptor CPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPEare an electronic energy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair. In someembodiments, the artificial photosystem comprises more than one LHA thatform an LHA array. In some embodiments, the artificial photosystemfurther comprises a reaction center (RC), wherein the RC and the LHAform a supercomplex. In some embodiments, the RC is electronicallylinked to the LHA. In some embodiments, the artificial photosystemfurther comprises an oxidizing catalyst. In some embodiments, theartificial photosystem further comprises a reducing catalyst. In someembodiments, the artificial photosystem is encapsulated in a membrane,liposome, or vesicle. In some embodiments, the membrane isoleoylphosphatidycholine or a derivative thereof.

In various embodiments, the present invention provides a method ofconducting photosynthesis, comprising: providing an artificialphotosystem; and using the artificial photosystem in a photosyntheticprocess, thereby conducting photosynthesis; wherein the artificialphotosystem, comprises one or more light-harvesting antenna (LHA)comprising a conjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) complex (CPEC) comprisinga donor CPE and an acceptor CPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPEare an electronic energy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair. In someembodiments, the photosynthesis is artificial photosynthesis. In someembodiments, the photosynthetic process is an artificial photosyntheticprocess.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Exemplary embodiments are illustrated in referenced figures. It isintended that the embodiments and figures disclosed herein are to beconsidered illustrative rather than restrictive.

FIG. 1 depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention, anillustration of a CPE-based photosystem showing donor CPE and acceptorCPE strings, low-bandgap macrocycle aggregates, and fullerene acceptorsaffixed to a nanoparticle. Electronic energy is directionally funneledvia a bandgap gradient through the peripheral CPEs towards themacrocycle assembly, which then undergoes electron transfer.

FIG. 2 depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention,chemical structures of model positively-charged (PFP, left) andnegatively-charged (PTAK, right) CPEs.

FIG. 3A-FIG. 3B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 3A, an illustration of EET between an excited PFPchromophore and PTAK. FIG. 3B, shows the optical density (OD) and 1D PLspectra of PFP, PTAK, and TSPc.

FIG. 4A-FIG. 4C depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 4A 2D steady-state PL spectra of an isolated 1 mg/ml PFPsolution. FIG. 4C same as FIG. 4B, but for isolated PTAK solutions atconcentrations corresponding to the two CPEC molar charge ratios in FIG.5A-FIG. 5D. The diagonal lines correspond to a reflection at theexcitation wavelength and its second harmonic, which moves withwavelength at twice the speed of the former. Measurements were conductedin 1 cm pathlength quartz cuvettes in a right-angle collection geometry.

FIG. 5A-FIG. 5D depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, a 2D PL spectra of PFP:PTAK CPEC solutions and films. FIG.5A, 1:0.25 solution phase.

FIG. 5B, 1:1 solution phase. FIG. 5C, 1:1 solution with 0.01 M KI salt.FIG. 5D, Dried solid phase (film) of the 1:0.25 CPEC.

FIG. 6A-FIG. 6B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 6A SAXS curves of CPEC solutions with varying chargeratios. FIG. 6B Distributions of (apparent) diffusion coefficientsextracted from inverse Laplace transformation of the DLS autocorrelationfunctions of varying CPEC charge ratios (at 90° scattering angle) usingthe CONTIN algorithm. The CONTIN regularization parameter was fixed at0.5.

FIG. 7A-FIG. 7B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 7A Regioregular PTAK (left), regiorandom PTAK (middle),benzodithiophene derivative (right). FIG. 7B Illustration of CPECscontaining CPEs with rigid (left) and flexible (right) backbones.

FIG. 8 depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention,representative cations of varying hydrophobicity.

FIG. 9A-FIG. 9C depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, commercially-available model donor and acceptor molecules forRC assembly. FIG. 9A, TSPc. FIG. 9B, Carboxylic acid-based(tris-malonate) C₆₀ derivative. FIG. 9C, Carboxylic acid-based C₇₀.

FIG. 10A-FIG. 10B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 10A Illustration of TSPc assembly template off agraphene oxide nanoribbon, with fullerene malonate derivativesinteracting with the polar defect states of the ribbon. FIG. 10B Graftedfullerenes on inorganic surface further interact with TSPc in solution.

FIG. 11A-FIG. 11B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, a schematic of CPECs interaction with ionic surfactants. FIG.11A, The surfactant concentration is below the critical micelleconcentration and is below the equivalence point relative to the monomerconcentration. FIG. 11B, Micelle formation is expected to lead topartial aggregate breakup and potentially formation ofloosely-associated CPECs.

FIG. 12A-FIG. 12B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 12A chemical structures of PFPI (left) and PTAK (right).FIG. 12B optical density (OD) and photoluminescence (PL) of PFPI andPTAK solutions. The overlap of PFPI PL with OD of PTAK indicates thatexcitons can undergo energy transfer from the excited PFPI donor to thePTAK acceptor.

FIG. 13A-FIG. 13D depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, aqueous solution 2D PL maps of FIG. 13A PFPI at 1 mg/mL, FIG.13B PTAK mole-matched to the 1:0.25 charge ratio CPEC, FIG. 13C 1:0.01PFPI:PTAK CPEC, and FIG. 13D 1:0.25 CPEC. The diagonal lines are due toreflections of the excitation wavelength. The horizontal line in FIG.13C and FIG. 13D indicates the excitation wavelength that gives rise toPFPI emission and to simultaneous PTAK emission. The sharp enhancementof the latter cannot be explained by the PTAK absorption spectrum,indicating evidence of EET from PFPI to PTAK. The same enhancement isseen at lower excitation wavelengths as well. Though isolated PTAK emitsin this region as well, in a CPEC this PTAK PL is drastically moreintense, as indicated by the change in scale between FIG. 13B and FIG.13D. Measurements were conducted in 0.2 cm pathlength quartz cuvettes ina right-angle collection geometry.

FIG. 14A-FIG. 14B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 14A OD of isolated PTAK and PTAK complexed to PFPI(CPEC) at the same nominal PTAK concentrations. FIG. 14B PL excitation(PLE) spectra collected at an emission wavelength that exclusivelycorresponds to PTAK PL. For comparison, PLE of PFPI in a CPEC (collectednear PFPI PL peak and scaled for clarity) is also labeled as (PFPI). ThePLE intensity of PTAK complexed to PFPI is orders of magnitude largerthan that of PTAK on its own. The enhancement in complexed PTAK's PL atwavelengths that correspond to PFPI PL yet do not correspond to sharpPTAK OD features is strong evidence of inter-CPE EET from photoexcitedPFPI to PTAK. The vertical white bar masks the specular reflection ofthe excitation light. PLE measurements were conducted in 1 cm pathlengthquartz cuvettes in a right-angle collection geometry.

FIG. 15A-FIG. 15B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, normalized PL of PTAK in isolated aqueous solution FIG. 15Avs. that of the CPEC FIG. 15B exciting at 450 nm. The data show that theapparent 0-0/0-1 vibronic ratio differs substantially between the sameCPE in different environments: <1 in isolation and >1 in the CPEC.

FIG. 16A-FIG. 16C depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, time-resolved PL decays (collected for the same duration) ofCPECs at varying polyion charge ratios as well as pure CPE solutioncontrols prepared at concentrations corresponding to their respectiveCPEC solutions. The pure PTAK controls are labeled with thecorresponding CPEC charge ratio. The instrument response function (IRF)is labeled in all panels. FIG. 16A λ_(ex)=420 nm and λ_(em)=442 nm.Emission is collected near the peak of PFPI PL. The inset shows PFPI andCPEC solutions plotted on a linear scale. The data show that PFPI PL isprogressively quenched with increasing relative charge ratio, which weattribute to EET from PFPI to PTAK. FIG. 16B λ_(ex)=420 nm andλ_(em)=615 nm. Emission at the latter comes overwhelmingly from PTAK.The curves show that upon complexation with PFPI, PTAK emissionintensity increases by ˜ two orders of magnitude and lasts substantiallylonger than that of pure PTAK. We attribute this to emergence ofextended, J-like excitonic states largely delocalized over theconjugated PTAK backbone. FIG. 16C λ_(ex)=600 nm and λ_(em)=680 nm. Inthis case, the lowest-energy excitons of PTAK are excited with vanishingPFPI excitation. Similar to the data shown in FIG. 16B, the decaysdisplay long-lived PL and are due to delocalized J-like excitons.

FIG. 17 depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention,normalized DLS electric field autocorrelation functions for CPECsolutions collected at a 20° scattering angle. Hollow markers correspondto data, dashed lines to CONTIN-generated fits labeled withcorresponding “fit”, and solid lines to relaxation time distributiontimes obtained from CONTIN, labeled with corresponding “G”.

FIG. 18 depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention, SAXSintensities vs. scattering vector Q for 1 mg/mL PFPI solution (solidblack line) and CPEC solutions at 1:0.01 (circles), 1:0.05 (squares) and1:0.25 (diamonds) charge ratios.

FIG. 19A-FIG. 19B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, 2D PL maps of the solid CPEC dense phase isolated from CPECsolutions of varying polycation/polyanion charge ratios: FIG. 19A1:0.063; FIG. 19B 1:0.25. The solid was spread on a substrate as a pasteand allowed to dry. PFPI PL is nearly completely quenched, and PTAK PLis enhanced in the excitation region corresponding to strong PFPIemission when PFPI is in isolation.

FIG. 20A-FIG. 20B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 20A cartoon illustrating the change in PTAK chainmicrostructure going from isolated solution to the CPEC. The result is aplanarization of the PTAK backbone relative to isolated solutions. FIG.20B cartoon of PFPI and PTAK chains in a solution-phase CPEC. Thebackbones of both CPEs are fairly extended, leading to coherentexcitonic wavefunction delocalization over a large backbone segment. Oneconsequence of this backbone planarization due to CPEC formation is adrastic increase in the PL quantum yield of PTAK (bottom CPE),consistent with emission from J-like excitonic states. Arrows indicatedirectional transfer of electronic energy.

FIG. 21 depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention,normalized PLE of a 1:0.25 charge ratio CPEC. Black triangles with lineshow PL collected at 440 nm, corresponding to PFPI PL. Gray triangleswithout line show PL collected at 660 nm, corresponding to PTAK.

FIG. 22A-FIG. 22C depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 22A structures of cationic PFPI and anionic PTAK. FIG.22B optical density (OD) of PFPI and photoluminescence (PL) of PTAKsolutions (n ˜100). FIG. 22C normalized PL excitation spectra of anaqueous PFPI:PTAK complex at a 1:0.25 molar charge ratio at two fixedemission wavelengths. Black triangles with line correspond to PL due toPFPI only (440 nm), which tracks the OD of PFPI (solid black curve inFIG. 22B) well. Gray triangles without line show PL due to PTAK only(660 nm).

FIG. 23A-FIG. 23C depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 23A time-resolved PL decays on a semi-logarithmic scalecollected for a fixed time. Samples are excited at excitation wavelengthwithin the PFPI absorption band, and emission is detected only wherePTAK fluoresces. IRF stands for the instrument response function. CPECstands for CPE complex. The +/− charge ratio is indicated in the legend.PTAK is the energy acceptor control corresponding to a given complex.FIG. 23B PL of aqueous PTAK control solutions identical in concentrationto CPEC solutions in FIG. 23C. The plotted wavelength region correspondsto PTAK PL only. The 0-0 and 0-1 vibronic peaks are labeled in boldfont.

FIG. 24 depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention, EETefficiency from PFPI to PTAK as a function of KF concentration forcomplexes prepared at room temperature (RT) and at 70° C.

FIG. 25A-FIG. 25B depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 25A PL of both PFPI (left) and PTAK (right) in 1:0.25CPE complexes prepared at room temperature (RT) and 70° C. FIG. 25B thedynamics of CPE complex formation at 70° C. are slow; this shows theevolution of the PFPI vibronic ratio and PL intensity. The sharp peak isthe excitation line.

FIG. 26A-FIG. 26C depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of theinvention, FIG. 26A PL of a CPE complex solution in the absence (CPEC1:0.25) and presence (CPEC 1:0.25; SDS 5 mg/ml and CPEC 1:1; SDS 5mg/ml) of anionic surfactant, SDS, above the critical micelleconcentration. The micelle—CPE interaction can disrupt CPE complexformation, leading to highly structured PFPI PL. Raising thepolyanion/polycation charge ratio partially reforms the complex, as seenvia PFPI PL quenching. FIG. 26B relaxation time distributions from DLSof a 1:0.25 complex as a function of SDS concentration below (SDS 0.5mg/mL), at (SDS 2 mg/mL) and above (SDS 10 mg/mL) the nominal SDScritical micelle concentration. The CONTIN regularization parameter wasfixed at 0.2 after some variation. FIG. 26C PL exciting at 410 nm of a1:0.25 CPE complex as a function of phthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid,which is capable of serving as the energy acceptor for both PFPI andPTAK excitons.

FIG. 27 depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention,photoluminescence microscope image of 1:0.25 CPE complex encapsulated by˜ micrometer-sized vesicles. Bright white color represents fluorescencefrom CPEs.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

All references cited herein are incorporated by reference in theirentirety as though fully set forth. Unless defined otherwise, technicaland scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonlyunderstood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this inventionbelongs. Hornyak et al., Introduction to Nanoscience and Nanotechnology,CRC Press (2008); Singleton and Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiologyand Molecular Biology 3rd ed., revised ed., J. Wiley & Sons (New York,N.Y. 2006); and Smith, March's Advanced Organic Chemistry Reactions,Mechanisms and Structure 7th ed., J. Wiley & Sons (New York, N.Y. 2013),provide one skilled in the art with a general guide to many of the termsused in the present application.

One skilled in the art will recognize many methods and materials similaror equivalent to those described herein, which could be used in thepractice of the present invention. Other features and advantages of theinvention will become apparent from the following detailed description,taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which illustrate,by way of example, various features of embodiments of the invention.Indeed, the present invention is in no way limited to the methods andmaterials described. For convenience, certain terms employed herein, inthe specification, examples and appended claims are collected here.

Unless stated otherwise, or implicit from context, the following termsand phrases include the meanings provided below. Unless explicitlystated otherwise, or apparent from context, the terms and phrases belowdo not exclude the meaning that the term or phrase has acquired in theart to which it pertains. Unless otherwise defined, all technical andscientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonlyunderstood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this inventionbelongs. It should be understood that this invention is not limited tothe particular methodology, protocols, and reagents, etc., describedherein and as such can vary. The definitions and terminology used hereinare provided to aid in describing particular embodiments, and are notintended to limit the claimed invention, because the scope of theinvention is limited only by the claims.

As used herein the term “comprising” or “comprises” is used in referenceto compositions, methods, systems, articles of manufacture, andrespective component(s) thereof, that are useful to an embodiment, yetopen to the inclusion of unspecified elements, whether useful or not. Itwill be understood by those within the art that, in general, terms usedherein are generally intended as “open” terms (e.g., the term“including” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” theterm “having” should be interpreted as “having at least,” the term“includes” should be interpreted as “includes but is not limited to,”etc.).

Unless stated otherwise, the terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similarreferences used in the context of describing a particular embodiment ofthe application (especially in the context of claims) can be construedto cover both the singular and the plural. The recitation of ranges ofvalues herein is merely intended to serve as a shorthand method ofreferring individually to each separate value falling within the range.Unless otherwise indicated herein, each individual value is incorporatedinto the specification as if it were individually recited herein. Allmethods described herein can be performed in any suitable order unlessotherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context.The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (for example,“such as”) provided with respect to certain embodiments herein isintended merely to better illuminate the application and does not pose alimitation on the scope of the application otherwise claimed. Theabbreviation, “e.g.” is derived from the Latin exempli gratia, and isused herein to indicate a non-limiting example. Thus, the abbreviation“e.g.” is synonymous with the term “for example.” No language in thespecification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed elementessential to the practice of the application.

As used herein, the term “artificial photosynthesis” refers to anychemical process that is designed to replicate or mimic one or moreprocesses of natural photosynthesis. The term “artificialphotosynthesis” is generally used in the art to refer to anynon-naturally occurring composition, method, process, article ormanufacture, or system for capturing, storing, transferring, orconverting energy from light (i.e., solar energy from sunlight). Forexample, in some embodiments, artificial photosynthesis utilizes anon-naturally occurring composition or article of manufacture forconverting carbon dioxide and water into oxygen, a liquid fuel source, agaseous fuel source, etc. using sunlight. In contrast, naturalphotosynthesis is a process used by plants and other photosyntheticorganisms (e.g., algae, cyanobacteria, euglena) for converting lightenergy, (e.g., solar energy from sunlight) into chemical energy that canlater be released to fuel the organism's activities. In naturalphotosynthesis, this chemical energy is stored in carbohydratemolecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide andwater, wherein water is released as a waste product. As used herein theterm “artificial photosynthesis” also means any process performed usingan artificial photosystem as described herein.

As used herein, the term “artificial photosynthetic process” refers toany process performed using an artificial photosystem as describedherein.

As used herein, the abbreviation “CPE” refers to conjugatedpolyelectrolyte.

As used herein, the term “donor CPE” refers to donor conjugatedpolyelectrolyte.

As used herein, the term “acceptor CPE” refers to acceptor conjugatedpolyelectrolyte.

As used herein, the abbreviation “CPEC” and the term “CPE complex” referto conjugated polyelectrolyte complex. “CPEC” and “CPE complex” are usedinterchangeably herein.

As used herein, the abbreviation “LHA” refers to light-harvestingantenna.

As used herein, the abbreviation “EET” refers to electronic energytransfer.

As used herein, the abbreviation “PL” refers to photoluminescence.

As used herein, the abbreviation “RC” refers to reaction center.

As used herein, the abbreviation “PFP” refers topoly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene]) or a derivative thereof.

As used herein, the abbreviation “PTAK” refers topoly(alkylcarboxythiophene) or a derivative thereof.

As used herein, the abbreviation “TSPc” refers to metal-freephthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid or a derivative thereof.

As used herein, the abbreviation “OD” refers to optical density.

The terms “light-harvesting antenna”, “electronic energy relay” and“electronic energy transfer relay” are used interchangeably herein.

The terms “PFP” and “PFPI” are used interchangeably herein.

In various embodiments, the present invention describes the preparationof conjugated (semiconducting), water-soluble, luminescentpolyelectrolyte complexes (CPECs) containing an electronic excited state(exciton) donor and an exciton acceptor capable of undergoing electronicenergy transfer (EET) from the donor to the acceptor. The complex isformed by direct introduction of separate conjugated polyelectrolyte(CPE) solutions into a common vessel, wherein electrostaticself-assembly yields a simultaneous coexistence of a dense and a dilutephase, each of which contains CPECs at different concentrations and withdifferent luminescent properties. Any oppositely-charged CPE pair, wherethe absorption spectrum of one spectrally overlaps the photoluminescence(PL) spectrum of the other, is within the scope of the presentinvention, independent of the precise backbone CPE chemical structures.Merely by way of non-limiting examples, backbone CPE chemical structuresmay include both regioregular and regiorandom polyelectrolyte backbones.The backbone chemical structure can be composed of any conjugatedsubunit, such as a fluorene, thiophene- or phenyl-based groups, ringsystems including heteroatoms, fused rings (e.g. benzodithiophene,bithiophene), as well as co-polymers that include permutations of thesegroups covalently linked within the monomer. By controlling the solutionionic strength, the order of CPE addition and the relative charge ratio,luminescence spectra and stability of the complexes can be broadlyvaried. The dense phase exhibits substantial resistance to dissolutionand can be deposited as a coating. Both the dilute and the dense phaseseffectively lead to detection of high energy photons via lower energyluminescence, thus functioning as both a light harvester and a sensorfor high energy photons. The polymeric nature of the CPEC provides theability to process these materials either via solution deposition (e.g.spin-coating, slot-die coating, etc.), as well via elevated temperatureprocessing of the dense phase. Since the CPEC is composed of long-chainsemiconducting polymer molecules as opposed to small-molecule oroligomeric species, tuning the polymer chain microstructure can be usedto tune the electronic and thus luminescent properties of the complex.For example, the relative CPEC charge ratio can be used to control thephysical polyelectrolyte conformation, thus controlling the lightemission spectrum as well as the photoluminescence quantum yield,thereby providing substantially more control over the light harvestingand EET characteristics than small molecules or oligomers.

Various embodiments of the present invention may find utilities influorescent lighting, light sensing, and down-conversion of photonenergy. Moreover, one may improve the stability of the complex insolution for ease of processing; achieve sensitive control of energytransfer rates and luminescence quantum yields; assemblemulti-polyelectrolyte complexes with charged small molecules to achievespectrally-broad light harvesting and further down-conversion of thephoton energy; create an artificial photosystem by interfacing the CPECwith an electron transfer interface (using, e.g., a water-solublefullerene derivative as the electron acceptor); interface the CPECassembly with a photocatalyst for solar fuel generation; and link two ormore artificial photosystems in series using an electronic bridge.

In various embodiments, this invention provides the ability to tune theemission properties of soft-matter assemblies soluble in benign polarsolvents (such as water) via control of environmental factors.Specifically, owing to the polymeric nature of the self-assembledcomplex and the strong coupling between the conjugated polyelectrolytesolution structure and its optical properties, the intensity andemission colors can be tuned simply by varying the environment in whichthe complex exists. This obviates the need to synthesize an entire newmolecule if the emission spectrum must be changed. Furthermore, thecomplexation process can be used to change the native emissionproperties of the exciton donor and acceptor polyelectrolytes, therebyleading to emergent optical properties that are absent in the isolatedcomponents.

Due to the coexistence of the two phases, one may need to process adense CPEC phase that resists further dissolution. Once deposited on asubstrate, this resistance to organic and polar solvents is attractivefor certain applications. In certain situations, one may retain the bulkof the CPEC in the “dilute” phase, rendering it amenable tostraight-forward solution processing techniques such as spin-coating andink jet printing, leading to a well-defined thin film coating.

Various embodiments of the present invention provide a light-harvestingantenna (LHA). In some embodiments, the LHA comprises: a conjugatedpolyelectrolyte (CPE) complex comprising a donor CPE and an acceptorCPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPE are an electronic energytransfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair. In other embodiments, the LHAconsists of or consists essentially of: a conjugated polyelectrolyte(CPE) complex comprising a donor CPE and an acceptor CPE, wherein thedonor CPE and acceptor CPE are an electronic energy transfer (EET)donor/acceptor pair. In various embodiments, the CPE complex (CPEC)further comprises a second, third or more donor CPEs and/or a second,third or more acceptor CPEs.

Various embodiments of the present invention provide a light-harvestingantenna (LHA). In some embodiments, the LHA comprises: one or moreconjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) complexes comprising one or more donorCPEs and one or more acceptor CPEs, wherein the donor CPEs and acceptorCPEs are electronic energy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pairs. In otherembodiments, the LHA consists of or consists essentially of: one or moreconjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) complexes comprising one or more donorCPEs and one or more acceptor CPEs, wherein the donor CPEs and acceptorCPEs are electronic energy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pairs.

In various embodiments, the CPE complex (CPEC) further comprises asurfactant molecule. In various embodiments, the surfactant molecule isionic, charged, zwitterionic, non-ionic, lipophilic, lipophobic,hydrophobic, hydrophilic, amphiphilic or amphipathic.

In various embodiments, the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE areoppositely charged. In various embodiments, the CPE complex (CPEC) isformed via electrostatic interactions between the donor CPE and theacceptor CPE. In various embodiments, the CPE complex (CPEC) is formedvia non-covalent interactions between the donor CPE and the acceptorCPE.

In various embodiments, the donor CPE is apoly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene]) (PFP) or a derivative thereof. Invarious embodiments, the donor CPE is apoly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene]) (PFPI) or a derivative thereof.These derivatives can include, but are in no way limited to: a) varyinglengths of the dialkyl linkers connecting the conjugated fluorene systemto the charged quaternary ammonium moiety by varying the number ofaliphatic carbons in the linker; b) using alkyl linkers of dissimilarlengths; c) using primary and secondary ammonium ions at the end of thelinkers; d) imparting additional solubility to the sidechains byreplacing the alkyl linkers with multi-ether . . . —O—C—O—C— . . .linkers; further functionalizing the phenylene unit either with polar orcharged sidechains; e) exchanging the iodide counterion for other halideions or more complex (carbon-based) counterions, or employingcombinations of the above modifications.

In various embodiments, the poly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene]) (PFP) ora derivative thereof has a molecular weight (MW) from 1,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 5,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 10,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 15,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 20,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 25,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 30,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 35,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 40,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 45,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 50,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 55,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 60,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 65,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 70,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 75,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 80,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 85,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 90,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 95,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to95,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 90,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to85,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 80,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to75,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 70,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to65,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 60,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to55,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 50,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to45,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 40,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to35,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 30,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to25,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 20,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to15,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 10,000 g/mol; or from 1,000 g/mol to5,000 g/mol.

In various embodiments, the poly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene]) (PFP) ora derivative thereof has a molecular weight (MW) from 500 g/mol to125,000 g/mol.

In various embodiments, the acceptor CPE is apoly(alkylcarboxythiophene) (PTAK) or a derivative thereof. The PTAKchemical structure can be derivatized in a number of ways, including,but in no way limited to: a) exchanging the alkyl linker connecting thethiophene monomer to the carboxylate anion for a multi-ether . . .—O—C—O—C— . . . linker to impart additional solubility; and/or b) byexchanging the counterion for other simple alkali earth cations or morecomplex (carbon-based) counterions.

In various embodiments, the poly(alkylcarboxythiophene) (PTAK) or aderivative thereof has a molecular weight (MW) from 1,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 5,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 10,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 15,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 20,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 25,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 30,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 35,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 40,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 45,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 50,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 55,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 60,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 65,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 70,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 75,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 80,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 85,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 90,000 g/mol to100,000 g/mol; from 95,000 g/mol to 100,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to95,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 90,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to85,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 80,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to75,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 70,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to65,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 60,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to55,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 50,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to45,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 40,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to35,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 30,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to25,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 20,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to15,000 g/mol; from 1,000 g/mol to 10,000 g/mol; or from 1,000 g/mol to5,000 g/mol.

In various embodiments, the poly(alkylcarboxythiophene) (PTAK) or aderivative thereof has a molecular weight (MW) from 500 g/mol to 125,000g/mol.

In various embodiments, the acceptor CPE is a regiorandom PTAK orregioregular PTAK, or a benzodithiophene derivative of PTAK, or acombination thereof.

In various embodiments, the charge ratio between the donor CPE and theacceptor CPE is about 1:0.25, 1:0.5, 1:1, or 1:2. The charge ratio iscalculated as the total concentration of polymer positive charges in theinitially-mixed solution (number of charges per monomer multiplied bythe monomer concentration) relative to the total concentration ofnegative ions on the polymer backbone calculated in an identical manner.

In various embodiments, the charge ratio between the donor CPE and theacceptor CPE is about from 1:0.1 to 1:0.2, from 1:0.2 to 1:0.3, from1:0.3 to 1:0.4, from 1:0.4 to 1:0.5, from 1:0.5 to 1:0.6, from 1:0.6 to1:0.7, from 1:0.7 to 1:0.8, from 1:0.8 to 1:0.9, or from 1:0.9 to 1:1.0.In various embodiments, the charge ratio between the donor CPE and theacceptor CPE is about from 1:1 to 1:2, from 1:2 to 1:3, from 1:3 to 1:4,from 1:4 to 1:5, from 1:5 to 1:6, from 1:6 to 1:7, from 1:7 to 1:8, from1:8 to 1:9, or from 1:9 to 1:10. In various embodiments, the chargeratio can be tuned continuously from 100% of one of the CPE's to 0% ofthe other (bearing the opposite charge) by simply controlling thesolution concentrations prior to mixing to produce the CPEC solution.

In various embodiments, an LHA as disclosed herein is encapsulated in amembrane, liposome, or vesicle. In various embodiments, the membrane isoleoylphosphatidycholine or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments,the membrane can be, but is in no way limited to Phosphatidylinositol,Phosphatidylethanolamines, Phosphosphingolipids, or combinationsthereof. In some embodiments, the membrane can be any phospholipid orany phospholipid derivative. In some embodiments, the membrane can beany phospholipid or any phospholipid derivative capable of forming lipidvesicles in water.

Various embodiments of the present invention also provide a method ofmanufacturing a LHA. In some embodiments, the method comprises:providing a donor CPE solution and an acceptor CPE solution; mixing thedonor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution: and generating a CPECof the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE, wherein the generated CPEC is themanufactured LHA. In some embodiments, the method consists of orconsists essentially of: providing a donor CPE solution and an acceptorCPE solution; mixing the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPEsolution: and generating a CPEC of the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE,wherein the generated CPEC is the manufactured LHA. In accordance withthe present invention, the step of mixing can be performed in a varietyof ways, which may include, but are in no way limited to, introducingthe donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution into a commonvessel; introducing the donor CPE solution into the acceptor CPEsolution; and introducing the acceptor CPE solution into the donor CPEsolution. In accordance with the present invention, the order and/orrate of introducing each donor or acceptor CPE solution may be variedand adjusted to achieve a desirable outcome. Additional factors that mayinfluence outcome may include, but are in no way limited to, solutiontemperature, extent of ultracentrifugation, CPE backbone charge density,total solution concentration, ionic strength and dielectric environment.

In various embodiments, the mixture may contain a liquid phase and asolid phase. In accordance with the present invention, CPEC can exist inboth the liquid and solid phases. In various embodiments, the methodfurther comprises separating the liquid phase and the solid phase of themixture.

In various embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting thecharge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE. In variousembodiments, the charge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPEis adjusted to be about 1:0.25, 1:0.5, 1:1, or 1:2. In variousembodiments, the charge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPEis adjusted to be about from 1:0.1 to 1:0.2, from 1:0.2 to 1:0.3, from1:0.3 to 1:0.4, from 1:0.4 to 1:0.5, from 1:0.5 to 1:0.6, from 1:0.6 to1:0.7, from 1:0.7 to 1:0.8, from 1:0.8 to 1:0.9, or from 1:0.9 to 1:1.0.In various embodiments, the charge ratio between the donor CPE and theacceptor CPE is about from 1:1 to 1:2, from 1:2 to 1:3, from 1:3 to 1:4,from 1:4 to 1:5, from 1:5 to 1:6, from 1:6 to 1:7, from 1:7 to 1:8, from1:8 to 1:9, or from 1:9 to 1:10. In various embodiments, the chargeratio can be tuned continuously from 100% of one of the CPE's to 0% ofthe other (bearing the opposite charge) by simply controlling thesolution concentrations prior to mixing to produce the CPEC solution.

In various embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting the ionicstrength in the donor CPE solution and/or the acceptor CPE solutionand/or the mixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPEsolution. In some embodiments, the method further comprises adjustingthe ionic strength in the donor CPE solution. In other embodiments, themethod further comprises adjusting the ionic strength in the acceptorCPE solution. In still other embodiments, the method further comprisesadjusting the ionic strength in the mixture of the donor CPE solutionand the acceptor CPE solution.

In various embodiments, the ionic strength of a solution (e.g., thedonor CPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, and their mixture) isadjusted through adjusting the amount of a halogen ion, fluorine (F)ion, chlorine (Cl) ion, bromine (Br) ion, iodine (I) ion, or astatine(At) ion, or a combination thereof. Other ions that may be used include,but are in no way limited to carboxylic acid-based ions such asmuconate, adipate and related derivatives.

In various embodiments, the ionic strength of a solution (e.g., thedonor CPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, and their mixture) isadjusted through adjusting the amount of a salt, a halogen salt, KI, KF,KCl, KBr, or KAt, or a combination thereof. In various embodiments, thisincludes other monovalent alkali earth ions such as cations of Na, Liand Rb, as well as divalent ions such as Ca.

In various embodiments, the total excess ion concentration in a solution(e.g., the donor CPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, and theirmixture) is adjusted to be about 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06,0.07, 0.08, 0.09, or 0.1 M. In various embodiments, the ionic strengthis adjusted to about 0.001-0.01, 0.01-0.1, 0.1-0.5, 0.5-5, 5-10.

In various embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting thesolvent composition of the donor CPE solution, and/or the acceptor CPEsolution, and/or the mixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptorCPE solution. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesadjusting the solvent composition of the donor CPE solution. In someembodiments, the method further comprises adjusting the solventcomposition of the acceptor CPE solution. In some embodiments, themethod further comprises adjusting the solvent composition of themixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution.

In various embodiments, the solvent composition of a solution (e.g., thedonor CPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, and their mixture)includes water, nonaqueous component, or a combination thereof. Examplesof the nonaqueous component can include, but are not limited to, THF,dioxane, DMF, DMSO, methanol, ethanol, NMP, and combinations thereof.

In various embodiments, the ratio between water and the nonaqueouscomponent is about from 1:0.1 to 1:0.2, from 1:0.2 to 1:0.3, from 1:0.3to 1:0.4, from 1:0.4 to 1:0.5, from 1:0.5 to 1:0.6, from 1:0.6 to 1:0.7,from 1:0.7 to 1:0.8, from 1:0.8 to 1:0.9, or from 1:0.9 to 1:1.0. Invarious embodiments, the ratio between water and the nonaqueouscomponent is about from 1:1 to 1:2, from 1:2 to 1:3, from 1:3 to 1:4,from 1:4 to 1:5, from 1:5 to 1:6, from 1:6 to 1:7, from 1:7 to 1:8, from1:8 to 1:9, or from 1:9 to 1:10.

In various embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting thesidechain charge density of the donor CPE and/or the acceptor CPE. Insome embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting the sidechaincharge density of the donor CPE. In some embodiments, the method furthercomprises adjusting the sidechain charge density of acceptor CPE. Invarious embodiments, the side charge density of a donor or acceptor CPEis adjusted to be about 100% charged to 50% charged.

In various embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting the pH ofthe donor CPE solution, and/or the acceptor CPE solution, and/or themixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution. In someembodiments, the method further comprises adjusting the pH of the donorCPE solution. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesadjusting the pH of the acceptor CPE solution. In some embodiments, themethod further comprises adjusting the pH of the mixture of the donorCPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution. In various embodiments, thepH of a solution (e.g., the donor CPE solution, the acceptor CPEsolution, and their mixture) is adjusted to be about 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10, or 11.

In various embodiments, the method further includes adjusting theconcentration of a surfactant molecule in the donor CPE solution, and/orthe acceptor CPE solution, and/or the mixture of the donor CPE solutionand the acceptor CPE solution. In some embodiments, the method furthercomprises adjusting the concentration of a surfactant molecule in thedonor CPE solution. In some embodiments, the method further comprisesadjusting the concentration of a surfactant molecule in the acceptor CPEsolution. In some embodiments, the method further comprises adjustingthe concentration of a surfactant molecule in the mixture of the donorCPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution.

Various embodiments of the present invention also provide a method ofconducting photosynthesis. The method may comprise, or may consistessentially of, or may consist of: providing a LHA as disclosed herein;and using the LHA in a photosynthetic process, thereby conductingphotosynthesis. In some embodiments, the LHA is assembled into a LHAarray. In various embodiments, the LHA is assembled with additionalcomponents to form an artificial photosystem. Examples of the additionalcomponents include but are not limited to reaction centers (RCs),oxidizing catalysts, and reducing catalysts. In some embodiments, andLHA array comprises two or more LHA. In some embodiments, thephotosynthesis is artificial photosynthesis. In some embodiments, thephotosynthetic process is an artificial photosynthetic process.

Various embodiments of the present invention also provide a reactioncenter (RC). In some embodiments, the RC comprises: a complex comprisinga water-soluble phthalocyanine-based donor and a water-solublefullerene-based acceptor. In other embodiments, the RC consists of orconsists essentially of: a complex comprising a water-solublephthalocyanine-based donor and a water-soluble fullerene-based acceptor.

In various embodiments, a RC as disclosed herein is encapsulated in amembrane, liposome, or vesicle. In various embodiments, the membrane isoleoylphosphatidycholine or a derivative thereof.

In various embodiments, the water-soluble phthalocyanine-based donor isa metal-free phthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid (TSPc) or a derivativethereof. The phthalocyanine core can be derivatized by varying thecharged sidechains, such as replacing the sulfonic acid sidechains withcarboxylate anions or quaternary ammonium cations, as well as extendingthe carbon linker between the conjugated core of the molecule and thecharged periphery with multi-ether . . . —O—C—O—C— . . . groups.Furthermore, the metal-free core can be occupied by a metal atom or ion,allowing for additional functionalization by coordination to the metalvia, e.g., amine ligands. Additionally, the conjugated ring of thephthalocyanine may be replaced by other macrocyclic configurations, suchas systems based on porphyrins and their derivatives. In someembodiments, two or more of these modifications may be employed.

Various embodiments of the present invention also provide a method ofconducting photosynthesis. The method may comprise, or may consistessentially of, or may consist of: providing a RC as disclosed herein;and using the RC in a photosynthetic process, thereby conductingphotosynthesis. In various embodiments, the RC is assembled withadditional components to form an artificial photosystem. Examples of theadditional components include, but are not limited to, LHA or LHAarrays, oxidizing catalysts, and reducing catalysts. In someembodiments, the photosynthesis is artificial photosynthesis. In someembodiments, the photosynthetic process is an artificial photosyntheticprocess.

Various embodiments of the present invention provide an artificialphotosystem comprising: a LHA. In various embodiments, the LHA maycomprise, or may consist essentially of, or may consist of a conjugatedpolyelectrolyte (CPE) complex comprising a donor CPE and an acceptorCPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPE are an electronic energytransfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair. In various embodiments, theartificial photosystem comprises more than one LHA that form a LHAarray.

In various embodiments, the artificial photosystem further comprises areaction center (RC), wherein the RC and LHA form a supercomplex. Invarious embodiments, the RC may comprise, or may consist essentially of,or may consist of a complex comprising a water-solublephthalocyanine-based donor and a water-soluble fullerene-based acceptor.In various embodiments, the artificial photosystem comprises more thanone RC. In various embodiments, the RC is electronically linked to theLHA or LHA array. In various embodiments, the RC is structurally linkedto the LHA or LHA array. In various embodiments, the RC is covalentlylinked to the LHA or LHA array. In various embodiments, the RC isnon-covalently linked to the LHA or LHA array.

In various embodiments, the artificial photosystem further includes anoxidizing catalyst. In some embodiments, the oxidizing catalyst mayinclude, but is in no way limited to TiO₂, ZnO or Mn-based clusters akinto the oxygen evolving complex in plants.

In various embodiments, the artificial photosystem further comprises areducing catalyst. In various embodiments, the reducing catalyst mayinclude, but is in no way limited to Re-based catalysts or Ru-basedcatalysts.

Artificial photosystems of the present invention may be used fornumerous applications. Merely by way of non-limiting examples, theartificial photosystems described herein may be imbedded in a membrane,affixed on a surface as a thin film, or used directly in the liquidphase to generate fuel molecules such as H₂ and methanol byphotochemistry occurring at the catalytic sites following transfer ofcharge from photoexcited CPE-based components.

In various embodiments, an artificial photosystem as disclosed herein isencapsulated in a membrane, liposome, or vesicle. In variousembodiments, the membrane is oleoylphosphatidycholine or a derivativethereof.

Various embodiments of the present invention also provide a method ofconducting photosynthesis. The method may comprise, or may consistessentially of, or may consist of: providing the artificial photosystemas disclosed herein; and using the artificial photosystem in aphotosynthetic process, thereby conducting photosynthesis. In someembodiments, the photosynthesis is artificial photosynthesis. In someembodiments, the photosynthetic process is an artificial photosyntheticprocess.

Some embodiments of the present invention can be defined as any of thefollowing numbered paragraphs:

1. A light-harvesting antenna (LHA), comprising: a conjugatedpolyelectrolyte (CPE) complex (CPEC) comprising a donor CPE and anacceptor CPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPE are an electronicenergy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair.2. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the CPE complex (CPEC) furthercomprises a surfactant molecule.3. The LHA of paragraph 2, wherein the surfactant molecule is ionic,charged, zwitterionic, non-ionic, lipophilic, lipophobic, hydrophobic,hydrophilic, amphiphilic or amphipathic.4. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the CPE complex (CPEC) furthercomprises a second or more donor CPEs and/or a second or more acceptorCPEs.5. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the donor CPE and the acceptor CPEare oppositely charged.6. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the CPE complex (CPEC) is formed viaelectrostatic interactions between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE.7. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the CPE complex (CPEC) is formed vianon-covalent interactions between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE.8. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the donor CPE is apoly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene]) (PFP) or a derivative thereof.9. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the acceptor CPE is apoly(alkylcarboxythiophene) (PTAK) or a derivative thereof.10. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the acceptor CPE is a regiorandomPTAK or regioregular PTAK, or a benzodithiophene derivative of PTAK, ora combination thereof.11. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the charge ratio between the donorCPE and the acceptor CPE is about 1:0.25, 1:0.5, 1:1, or 1:2.12. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the charge ratio between the donorCPE and the acceptor CPE is about from 1:0.1 to 1:0.2, from 1:0.2 to1:0.3, from 1:0.3 to 1:0.4, from 1:0.4 to 1:0.5, from 1:0.5 to 1:0.6,from 1:0.6 to 1:0.7, from 1:0.7 to 1:0.8, from 1:0.8 to 1:0.9, or from1:0.9 to 1:1.0.13. The LHA of paragraph 1, wherein the charge ratio between the donorCPE and the acceptor CPE is about from 1:1 to 1:2, from 1:2 to 1:3, from1:3 to 1:4, from 1:4 to 1:5, from 1:5 to 1:6, from 1:6 to 1:7, from 1:7to 1:8, from 1:8 to 1:9, or from 1:9 to 1:10.14. The LHA of paragraph 1, encapsulated in a membrane, liposome, orvesicle.15. The LHA of paragraph 14, wherein the membrane isoleoylphosphatidycholine or a derivative thereof.16. A method of conducting photosynthesis, comprising:

-   -   providing the LHA of paragraph 1; and    -   using the LHA in a photosynthetic process, thereby conducting        photosynthesis.        17. The method of paragraph 16, wherein the photosynthesis is        artificial photosynthesis.        18. The method of paragraph 16, wherein the photosynthetic        process is an artificial photosynthetic process.        19. A method of manufacturing a light-harvesting antenna (LHA),        comprising:    -   providing a donor CPE solution and an acceptor CPE solution,        wherein the donor CPE solution comprises a donor CPE and the        acceptor CPE solution comprises an acceptor CPE;    -   mixing the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution to        provide a mixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE        solution; and    -   generating a CPE complex (CPEC) of the donor CPE and the        acceptor CPE, wherein the generated CPE complex (CPEC) is the        manufactured LHA.        20. The method of paragraph 19, further comprising adjusting a        charge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE.        21. The method of paragraph 19, further comprising adjusting an        ionic strength in one or more of the donor CPE solution, the        acceptor CPE solution, or the mixture of the donor CPE solution        and the acceptor CPE solution.        22. The method of paragraph 21, wherein the ionic strength is        adjusted through adjusting an amount of a halogen ion,        fluorine (F) ion, chlorine (Cl) ion, bromine (Br) ion,        iodine (I) ion, or astatine (At) ion, or a combination thereof.        23. The method of paragraph 21, wherein the ionic strength is        adjusted through adjusting an amount of a salt, a halogen salt,        KI, KF, KCl, KBr, or KAt, or a combination thereof.        24. The method of paragraph 19, wherein the mixture of the donor        CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution comprises a liquid        phase and a solid phase.        25. The method of paragraph 24, further comprising separating        the liquid phase and the solid phase of the mixture.        26. The method of paragraph 19, further comprising adjusting a        solvent composition of one or more of the donor CPE solution,        the acceptor CPE solution, or the mixture of the donor CPE        solution and the acceptor CPE solution.        27. The method of paragraph 26, wherein independently one or        more of the solvent composition comprises water, a nonaqueous        component, or a combination thereof.        28. The method of paragraph 19, further comprising adjusting a        sidechain charge density of one or more of the donor CPE or the        acceptor CPE.        29. The method of paragraph 19, further comprising adjusting a        pH of one or more of the donor CPE solution, the acceptor CPE        solution, or the mixture of the donor CPE solution and the        acceptor CPE solution.        30. The method of paragraph 19, further comprising adjusting a        concentration of a surfactant molecule in one or more of the        donor CPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, or the mixture of        the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution.        31. A reaction center (RC) comprising a complex comprising a        water-soluble phthalocyanine-based donor and a water-soluble        fullerene-based acceptor.        32. The RC of paragraph 31, wherein the water-soluble        phthalocyanine-based donor is a metal-free phthalocyanine        tetrasulfonic acid (TSPc) or a derivative thereof.        33. A method of conducting photosynthesis, comprising:    -   providing the RC of paragraph 31; and    -   using the RC in a photosynthetic process, thereby conducting        photosynthesis.        34. The method of paragraph 33, wherein the photosynthesis is        artificial photosynthesis.        35. The method of paragraph 33, wherein the photosynthetic        process is an artificial photosynthetic process.        36. An artificial photosystem, comprising: one or more        light-harvesting antenna (LHA) comprising a conjugated        polyelectrolyte (CPE) complex (CPEC) comprising a donor CPE and        an acceptor CPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPE are an        electronic energy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair.        37. The artificial photosystem of paragraph 36, comprising more        than one LHA that form an LHA array.        38. The artificial photosystem of paragraph 36, further        comprising a reaction center (RC), wherein the RC and the LHA        form a supercomplex.        39. The artificial photosystem of paragraph 38, wherein the RC        is electronically linked to the LHA.        40. The artificial photosystem of paragraph 36, further        comprising an oxidizing catalyst.        41. The artificial photosystem of paragraph 36, further        comprising a reducing catalyst.        42. The artificial photosystem of paragraph 36, encapsulated in        a membrane, liposome, or vesicle.        43. The artificial photosystem of paragraph 42, wherein the        membrane is oleoylphosphatidycholine or a derivative thereof.        44. A method of conducting photosynthesis, comprising:    -   providing the artificial photosystem of paragraph 36; and    -   using the artificial photosystem in a photosynthetic process,        thereby conducting photosynthesis.        45. The method of paragraph 44, wherein the photosynthesis is        artificial photosynthesis.        46. The method of paragraph 44, wherein the photosynthetic        process is an artificial photosynthetic process.

Many variations and alternative elements have been disclosed inembodiments of the present invention. Still further variations andalternative elements will be apparent to one of skill in the art.Various embodiments of the invention can specifically include or excludeany of these variations or elements.

In some embodiments, the numbers expressing quantities of ingredients,properties such as concentrations, reaction conditions, and so forth,used to describe and claim certain embodiments of the invention are tobe understood as being modified in some instances by the term “about”.Accordingly, in some embodiments, the numerical parameters set forth inthe written description and attached claims are approximations that canvary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by aparticular embodiment. In some embodiments, the numerical parametersshould be construed in light of the number of reported significantdigits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques. Notwithstandingthat the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth the broad scopeof some embodiments of the invention are approximations, the numericalvalues set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely aspracticable. The numerical values presented in some embodiments of theinvention may contain certain errors necessarily resulting from thestandard deviation found in their respective testing measurements.

Groupings of alternative elements or embodiments of the inventiondisclosed herein are not to be construed as limitations. Each groupmember can be referred to and claimed individually or in any combinationwith other members of the group or other elements found herein. One ormore members of a group can be included in, or deleted from, a group forreasons of convenience and/or patentability. When any such inclusion ordeletion occurs, the specification is herein deemed to contain the groupas modified thus fulfilling the written description of all Markushgroups used in the appended claims.

EXAMPLES

The disclosure is further illustrated by the following examples whichare intended to be purely exemplary of the invention, and which shouldnot be construed as limiting the invention in any way. The followingexamples are illustrative only, and are not intended to limit, in anymanner, any of the aspects described herein. The following examples areprovided to better illustrate the claimed invention and are not to beinterpreted as limiting the scope of the invention. To the extent thatspecific materials are mentioned, it is merely for purposes ofillustration and is not intended to limit the invention. One skilled inthe art may develop equivalent means or reactants without the exerciseof inventive capacity and without departing from the scope of theinvention.

Example 1

Introduction

In some embodiments, the technology of the present application relatesto the absorption, energy funneling and charge transfer functions ofphotosystems. The use of conjugated polyelectrolytes(CPEs)—semiconducting polymers bearing ionizable sidechains is describedherein. (Iii, S. W. T.; Joly, G. D.; Swager, T. M. Chemical SensorsBased on Amplifying Fluorescent Conjugated Polymers. Chem. Rev. 2007,107, 1339-1386; Jiang, H.; Taranekar, P.; Reynolds, J. R.; Schanze, K.S. Conjugated Polyelectrolytes: Synthesis, Photophysics, andApplications. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2009, 48, 4300-4316). Due totheir light-harvesting backbones and charged (or dipolar) sidechains,CPEs are uniquely positioned to simultaneously serve as electronicenergy relays and macromolecular scaffolds for meso-scale electronic andexcitonic donor/acceptor complexes. Using CPEs in light-harvestingassemblies obviates the need for an optically inactive scaffolding,thereby raising the density of subunits that directly contribute toexcited state generation. In fact, a single CPE chain may contain alarge number of quasi-independent light-absorbing units (chromophores)—anecessary requirement for facile concentration and funneling of excitedstates. (Scholes, G. D.; Fleming, G. R.; Olaya-Castro, A.; vanGrondelle, R. Lessons from Nature about Solar Light Harvesting. Nat.Chem. 2011, 3, 763-774; Stirbet, A. Excitonic Connectivity betweenPhotosystem II Units: What Is It, and How to Measure It? Photosynth.Res. 2013, 116, 189-214; Barter, L. M. C.; Durrant, J. R.; Klug, D. R. AQuantitative Structure-Function Relationship for the Photosystem IIReaction Center: Supermolecular Behavior in Natural Photosynthesis.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2003, 100, 946-951; Croce, R.; vanAmerongen, H. Light-Harvesting and Structural Organization ofPhotosystem II: From Individual Complexes to Thylakoid Membrane. J.Photochem. Photobiol. B. 2011, 104, 142-153; McConnell, I.; Li, G.;Brudvig, G. W. Energy Conversion in Natural and ArtificialPhotosynthesis. Chem. Biol. 2010, 17, 434-447).

Unlike covalently-linked assemblies, the CPE's ability to form modular,hierarchical supercomplexes via electrostatic interactions and its largechromophore density imbue these materials with significant potential forartificial, “soft” photosystem applications. Moreover, the combinationof through-bond transport, by virtue of backbone wavefunctiondelocalization, and inter-chain coupling opens up possibilities for bothefficient charge separation (due to rapid charge delocalization) andcoherent electronic energy transport. (Hayes, D.; Griffin, G. B.; Engel,G. S. Report Engineering Coherence Among Excited States in SyntheticHeterodimer Systems. Science 2013, 340, 1431-1434; Scholes, G.Quantum-Coherent Electronic Energy Transfer: Did Nature Think of ItFirst? J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2001, 1, 2-8; Christensson, N.; Kauffmann,H. F.; Pullerits, T.; Mančal, T. Origin of Long-Lived Coherences inLight-Harvesting Complexes. J. Phys. Chem. B 2012, 116, 7449-7454;Cheng, Y.-C.; Fleming, G. R. Dynamics of Light Harvesting inPhotosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2009, 60, 241-262).

In various embodiments, the present invention is based upon addressingthe following questions:

1) What are the dominant factors that dictate the equilibrium andnonequilibrium thermodynamics and, thus, the structure oflight-harvesting antennae (LHA) composed of strongly-interacting CPEsthat form an EET donor/acceptor pair? How do the EET dynamics reflectthis underlying structure?

2) How can one form a simultaneous structural and electronic linkbetween LHA and reaction centers (RCs) using the full range ofelectrostatic, π-stacking and ion-π interactions?

3) How does the local environment of donor/acceptor complexes thatundergo photoexcited electron transfer (ET) in the RC determine back-ET(recombination) rates, and how can self-assembly be utilized to lead tolong-lived charge-separated states?

Background, Significance and Results

Promise and Principles of Photosynthetic Energy Conversion

The natural photosynthetic process functions by converting the photonenergy absorbed by organic pigments into electronic excitations, whichare then transferred through a molecular scaffold to a RC. (Scholes, G.D.; Fleming, G. R.; Olaya-Castro, A.; van Grondelle, R. Lessons fromNature about Solar Light Harvesting. Nat. Chem. 2011, 3, 763-774;McConnell, I.; Li, G.; Brudvig, G. W. Energy Conversion in Natural andArtificial Photosynthesis. Chem. Biol. 2010, 17, 434-447; Cheng, Y.-C.;Fleming, G. R. Dynamics of Light Harvesting in Photosynthesis. Annu.Rev. Phys. Chem. 2009, 60, 241-262; Brotosudarmo, T. H. P.;Prihastyanti, M. N. U.; Gardiner, A. T.; Carey, A.-M.; Cogdell, R. J.The Light Reactions of Photosynthesis as a Paradigm for Solar FuelProduction. Energy Procedia 2014, 47, 283-289). The excited state istrapped at the RC, where it subsequently undergoes charge separation ata molecular donor/acceptor interface. The totality of the absorbingpigments makes up the LHA of the natural photosystem. Their function isto increase the effective absorption cross-section of the reactioncenter due to both the number density of chromophores and the broadspectral coverage of complimentary pigments. The LHA array and the RCtogether, in addition to oxidizing and reducing catalysts, make up thenatural photosystem.

“Soft” Artificial Photosystems

To date, there have been a number of successfully synthesized organicLHA and RCs. The main design principles of a coupled LHA and RC weredemonstrated by Gust et al. by covalently linking a carotenoid moleculeto a phthalocyanine-C₆₀ dyad. (Gust, D.; Moore, T. a; Moore, a L.Mimicking Photosynthetic Solar Energy Transduction. Acc. Chem. Res.2001, 34, 40-48). As an example of particularly complex covalentengineering, Matile et al. have synthesized co-axial charge transportchannels with an energy level gradient to promote facile chargeseparation over several nm. (Hayashi, H.; Sobczuk, A.; Bolag, A.; Sakai,N.; Matile, S. Antiparallel Three-Component Gradients in Double-ChannelSurface Architectures. Chem. Sci. 2014, 5, 4610-4614). The primarydrawback of the above approaches stems from the covalent linkage betweenthe antennae and the RC. To date, a number of non-covalent interactionshave been explored in attempts to generate self-assembled antennae andreaction centers. However, few investigators have tried to tackle theproblem of assembling a complete modular organic artificial photosystemholistically, including linking an RC to an array of LHA—an architecturenecessary to ensure large extinction coefficients.

The combination of a conjugated (semiconducting) backbone and ionicsidechains instills CPEs with particular promise for forming stable,excitonically-coupled artificial photosystem arrays. Previous work hasdemonstrated that CPEs can interact with charged and neutralmacromolecules, such as surfactants, saturated synthetic polymers,proteins and nucleic acids. (Martinez-Tomé, M. J.; Esquembre, R.;Mallavia, R.; Mateo, C. R. Formation of Complexes between the ConjugatedPolyelectrolytepoly{[9,9-bis(6′-N,N,N-Trimethylammonium)hexyl]fluorene-Phenylene}Bromide (HTMA-PFP) and Human Serum Albumin. Biomacromolecules 2010, 11,1494-1501; Knaapila, M.; Evans, R. C.; Garamus, V. M.; Almásy, L.;Székely, N. K.; Gutacker, A.; Scherf, U.; Burrows, H. D. Structure and“Surfactochromic” Properties of Conjugated Polyelectrolyte (CPE):Surfactant Complexes between a Cationic Polythiophene and SDS in Water.Langmuir 2010, 26, 15634-15643; Liu, Z.; Wang, H.-L.; Cotlet, M. DNASequence-Dependent Photoluminescence Enhancement in a CationicConjugated Polyelectrolyte. Chem. Commun. 2014, 50, 11311-11313; Inal,S.; Chiappisi, L.; Kölsch, J. D.; Kraft, M.; Appavou, M.-S.; Scherf, U.;Wagner, M.; Hansen, M. R.; Gradzielski, M.; Laschewsky, A.; et al.Temperature-Regulated Fluorescence and Association of anOligo(ethyleneglycol)methacrylate-Based Copolymer with a ConjugatedPolyelectrolyte—the Effect of Solution Ionic Strength. J. Phys. Chem. B2013, 117, 14576-14587; Wu, D.; Feng, F.; Xie, D.; Chen, Y.; Tan, W.;Schanze, K. S. Helical Conjugated Polyelectrolyte Aggregation Induced byBiotin-Avidin Interaction. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2012, 3, 1711-1715;Wang, D.; Gong, X.; Heeger, P. S.; Rininsland, F.; Bazan, G. C.; Heeger,A. J. Biosensors from Conjugated Polyelectrolyte Complexes. Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2002, 99, 49-53; Treger, J. S.; Ma, V. Y.; Gao, Y.;Wang, C.-C.; Wang, H.-L.; Johal, M. S. Tuning the Optical Properties ofa Water-Soluble Cationic Poly(p-Phenylenevinylene): SurfactantComplexation with a Conjugated Polyelectrolyte. J. Phys. Chem. B 2008,112, 760-763). However, there has been no understanding of what governsmulti-CPE donor/acceptor configurations, what determines the stabilityof their assembly, or how energy transfer can be combined with electrontransfer and charge separation using self-assembly. In one aspect, apurpose of the present invention is to understand the intricacies ofnon-covalent interactions in CPEs and their supercomplexes so as torationally direct the formation of a modular, multi-component artificialphotosystem.

Results

The first set of questions to answer were: what determines thethermodynamic stability and solution-phase microstructure ofoppositely-charged, water-soluble CPEs, and how does the energy transferefficiency reflect this microstructure? Although oppositely charged,non-conjugated polyelectrolytes continue to be an area of active work,essentially nothing was known about the solution thermodynamics ofassembled CPE complexes (CPECs). (Priftis, D.; Xia, X.; Margossian, K.O.; Perry, S. L.; Leon, L.; Qin, J.; de Pablo, J. J.; Tirrell, M.Ternary, Tunable Polyelectrolyte Complex Fluids Driven by ComplexCoacervation. Macromolecules 2014, 47, 3076-3085; Leclercq, L.; Boustta,M.; Vert, M. Dynamics of Polyelectrolyte Complex Formation and Stabilityas a Polyanion Is Progressively Added to a Polycation under ModeledPhysicochemical Blood Conditions. J. Bioact. Compat. Polym. 2011, 26,301-316; Spruijt, E.; Cohen Stuart, M. a.; van der Gucht, J. LinearViscoelasticity of Polyelectrolyte Complex Coacervates. Macromolecules2013, 46, 1633-1641; Spruijt, E.; Leermakers, F. a. M.; Fokkink, R.;Schweins, R.; van Well, A. a.; Cohen Stuart, M. a.; van der Gucht, J.Structure and Dynamics of Polyelectrolyte Complex Coacervates Studied byScattering of Neutrons, X-Rays, and Light. Macromolecules 2013, 46,4596-4605; Wang, Q.; Schleno, J. B. The PolyelectrolyteComplex/Coacervate Continuum. Macromolecules 2014, 47, 3108-3116;Biesheuvel, P. M.; Cohen Stuart, M. a. Electrostatic Free Energy ofWeakly Charged Macromolecules in Solution and IntermacromolecularComplexes Consisting of Oppositely Charged Polymers. Langmuir 2004, 20,2785-2791; Perry, S.; Li, Y.; Priftis, D.; Leon, L.; Tirrell, M. TheEffect of Salt on the Complex Coacervation of Vinyl Polyelectrolytes.Polymers. 2014, 6, 1756-1772; Priftis, D.; Megley, K.; Laugel, N.;Tirrell, M. Complex Coacervation of Poly(ethylene-Imine)/polypeptideAqueous Solutions: Thermodynamic and Rheological Characterization. J.Colloid Interface Sci. 2013, 398, 39-50; Chollakup, R.; Beck, J. B.;Dirnberger, K.; Tirrell, M.; Eisenbach, C. D. Polyelectrolyte MolecularWeight and Salt Effects on the Phase Behavior and Coacervation ofAqueous Solutions of Poly(acrylic Acid) Sodium Salt and Poly(allylamine)Hydrochloride. Macromolecules 2013, 46, 2376-2390; Hayashi, Y.; Ullner,M.; Linse, P. Complex Formation in Solutions of Oppositely ChargedPolyelectrolytes at Different Polyion Compositions and Salt Content †.J. Phys. Chem. B 2003, 107, 8198-8207). A supramolecular CPEC,consisting of CPEs that form an EET donor/acceptor (D/A) pair,represents a chromophore-dense superstructure that shows significantpromise for formation of a viable LHA array, and, as such, can form thefoundation of an inventive LHA. In certain embodiments, the focus was ona representative pair of commercially-available oppositely-charged CPEsbased on a poly(alkylcarboxythiophene) derivative (PTAK, MW 15,000g/mol) and poly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene]) derivative (PFP, MW50,000 g/mol). Their chemical structures are shown in FIG. 2. Thephotoluminescence (PL) spectrum of PFP spectrally overlaps theabsorption spectrum of PTAK, which without being bound by theory impliesthat EET from PFP to PTAK is thermodynamically allowed. This can be seenin FIG. 3B.

FIG. 3B shows the optical density (OD) and 1D PL spectra of PFP andPTAK. 2D PL spectra from an isolated PFP solution are shown in FIG. 4A.Interestingly, the PL of PFP exhibits two distinct regions: weak PL thatcomes from excitation within the main absorption band and a muchstronger PL band that originates from excitation in the red tail of theOD (˜425 nm). It was suspected that the latter feature is due toformation of J-aggregate-like species known for their enhanced PLquantum yield. (Würthner, F.; Kaiser, T. E.; Saha-Möller, C. R.J-Aggregates: From Serendipitous Discovery to Supramolecular Engineeringof Functional Dye Materials. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2011, 50,3376-3410; Yamagata, H.; Spano, F. C. Interplay between Intrachain andInterchain Interactions in Semiconducting Polymer Assemblies: TheHJ-Aggregate Model. J. Chem. Phys. 2012, 136, 184901; Spano, F. C. TheSpectral Signatures of Frenkel Polarons in H- and J-Aggregates. Acc.Chem. Res. 2010, 43, 429-439; Scholes, G. D.; Jordanides, X. J.;Fleming, G. R. Adapting the Förster Theory of Energy Transfer forModeling Dynamics in Aggregated Molecular Assemblies. J. Phys. Chem. B2001, 105, 1640-1651; Eisfeld, a.; Briggs, J. S. The J- and H-Bands ofOrganic Dye Aggregates. Chem. Phys. 2006, 324, 376-384). FIG. 4B andFIG. 4C show PL spectra of isolated PTAK solutions corresponding to theCPEC charge ratios in FIG. 5A-FIG. 5D. In both PTAK solutions,excitation at the red edge of the OD results in negligible PL, and onlyblue wavelengths give rise to (diminished) PL at the higherconcentration. While not wishing to be bound by any one particulartheory, it is likely that a combination of self-absorption andπ-stacked, aggregated inter-chain electronic states leads to quenchingof the PL; the density of such states is expected to increase at higherconcentrations.

It was determined that, when oppositely-charged PFP and PTAK arecombined from their respective solutions, the resulting solutionseparates into two phases: a liquid phase and aprecipitate/coacervate-like phase, depending on the solution ionicstrength. There is precedent for this type of phase behavior from workon non-conjugated polyelectrolyte complexes. FIG. 5A shows 2D PL spectraof the 1:0.25 PFP:PTAK charge ratio CPEC solution phase. Remarkably, thesolution PL spectrum resembles neither that of the isolated PFP nor PTAKsolutions. The blue emission band of PFP is gone, the J-like state beingbarely visible, even though there is strong PFP absorption (not shown).The PTAK spectral region (˜600-800 nm) now exhibits strong PL whenexciting at the red edge of PTAK absorption, in stark contrast to theisolated CPE. Perhaps more surprisingly, the 1:1 CPEC solution phase(FIG. 5B) shows that excitation wavelengths between ˜450-550 nm (thatlead to substantial PTAK emission in the 1:025 CPEC) now lead tonegligible PL.

It was determined that small amounts of excess KI lead to dramaticchanges in CPEC thermodynamics. The concentration of both CPE's in thesolution phase of the biphasic system drops substantially, and themorphology of the precipitate/coacervate phase changes visibly, becomingsignificantly more diffuse. It was determined that even at excess saltconcentrations as large as 1 M, there is little evidence that a singlesolution phase is beginning to emerge—behavior that differsqualitatively from non-conjugated polyelectrolyte solutions. (Priftis,D.; Xia, X.; Margossian, K. O.; Perry, S. L.; Leon, L.; Qin, J.; dePablo, J. J.; Tirrell, M. Ternary, Tunable Polyelectrolyte ComplexFluids Driven by Complex Coacervation. Macromolecules 2014, 47,3076-3085; Wang, Q.; Schleno, J. B. The PolyelectrolyteComplex/Coacervate Continuum. Macromolecules 2014, 47, 3108-3116;Chollakup, R.; Beck, J. B.; Dirnberger, K.; Tirrell, M.; Eisenbach, C.D. Polyelectrolyte Molecular Weight and Salt Effects on the PhaseBehavior and Coacervation of Aqueous Solutions of Poly(acrylic Acid)Sodium Salt and Poly(allylamine) Hydrochloride. Macromolecules 2013, 46,2376-2390; Jha, P. K.; Desai, P. S.; Li, J.; Larson, R. G. pH and SaltEffects on the Associative Phase Separation of Oppositely ChargedPolyelectrolytes. Polymers. 2014, 6, 1414-1436; Overbeek, J. T. G.;Voorn, M. J. Phase Separation of Polyelectrolyte Solutions. Theory ofComplex Coacervation. J. Cell. Phys. 1957, 49, 7-26). The 2D PL spectrumof a 1:1 PTAK:PFP solution with a 0.01 M excess KI concentration isshown in FIG. 5C. The FIG. 5C shows that there is substantial PFPemission from the main absorption band and a small amount of J-likeluminescence. PTAK emission is fairly weak; however, interestingly,there is enhancement in PTAK emission upon excitation of the J-like-bandof PFP. Such enhancement in PTAK PL in the presence of PFP only isunambiguous proof of PFP:PTAK complex formation leading to EET from PFPto PTAK. It was determined that the solution PL spectrum evolves in acomplex manner as a function of KI concentration.

FIG. 5D displays 2D PL spectra of the dried solid phase obtained fromthe 1:0.25 charge ratio mixture. There is no visible PL from PFP, andonce again an enhancement in PTAK emission can be seen when excitingprecisely at the wavelengths that give rise to PFP's J-like emissionband in isolation. Thus, in the solid state, excited states of PFPtransfer to PTAK with high efficiency. Though not identical,qualitatively this 2D PL shape is representative of solid films madefrom solutions of varying charge ratio (with no added salt). These datademonstrate that EET from PFP to PTAK in the CPEC is efficient, and thatthe emission characteristics of the two phases may be tuned using boththe charge ratio and the solution ionic strength.

FIG. 6A shows solution small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) curves forisolated PFP and varying PFP:PTAK charge ratios. It is clear that theSAXS profile changes qualitatively, demonstrating that the solutionmicrostructure evolves with charge ratio towards what appears to be aless defined characteristic length scale, as judged from the progressive“washing out” of the Guinier plateau below 10-2 Å-1.44,45 FIG. 6Bdemonstrates the distribution of diffusion coefficients obtained viadynamic light scattering (DLS). It can be seen that CPEC solutions ofhigher charge ratios lead to a clustering of the distribution aroundsmaller diffusion coefficients (larger aggregate sizes), while at lowercharge ratios, there is an additional significant distribution ofsmaller sizes.

It is also noted that CPEC solutions appear to exhibit substantialmetastability. Although when mixed, the CPEC solution separates intowhat appear to be two equilibrium phases, removal of the solution phasefollowing centrifugation can result in negligible additional precipitateformation months after separation of the two phases. To summarize, itwas determined that CPECs based on PFP and PTAK form efficient EETrelays, that the solution microstructure and PL characteristics can betuned with charge ratio and ionic strength, and that CPEC solutions canexhibit complex, nonequilibrium thermodynamics.

Example 2

Donor/Acceptor CPE Complexes

To gain a comprehensive understanding of CPEC formation and stability,the initial focus can be on the PFP:PTAK CPEC. This model CPE pair canbe used to determine the relationship between EET and its dependence onthe structure of both the solution and solid/coacervate phases.

Salt-Free PFP:PTAK CPECs

A number of questions about salt-free PFP:PTAK are important toconsider: How does the microstructure of the CPEC evolve as a functionof total polymer concentration and charge ratio, particularly in thevicinity of the gelation point? While not wishing to be bound by oneparticular theory, as the interconnected CPE network densifies, it isexpected that the EET dynamics will reflect the local and long-rangeconnectivity of the donor and acceptor polymers. What is responsible forthe evolution of the PTAK PL spectrum within a PFP:PTAK CPEC as the PTAKconcentration is increased? While not wishing to be bound by oneparticular theory, one possibility is that certain PTAK chain lengths(corresponding to a specific excitation wavelength region)preferentially complex with PFP. What is the relative efficiency of EETwhen exciting within the main absorption band vs. preferentiallyexciting the J-aggregate-like band? How does the chromophorewavefunction extent dictate the wavelength-dependent EET rate?

Probing Inter-CPE EET

To probe the spectral characteristics and dynamics of singlet EET onpicosecond (ps) timescales, a combination of steady-state andtime-resolved PL (TRPL) may be used. The latter may be obtained usingtime-correlated single photon counting, using a broad-band picosecond(ps) laser as the excitation source and a monochromator coupled with alow-noise hybrid photomultiplier detector. By varying the relativepolarization of the excitation and emission photons, the time-dependenceof the PL anisotropy can be measured. (Cheng, Y.-C.; Fleming, G. R.Dynamics of Light Harvesting in Photosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem.2009, 60, 241-262; Kodis, G.; Terazono, Y.; Liddell, P. a; Andréasson,J.; Garg, V.; Hambourger, M.; Moore, T. a; Moore, A. L.; Gust, D. Energyand Photoinduced Electron Transfer in a Wheel-Shaped ArtificialPhotosynthetic Antenna-Reaction Center Complex. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2006,128, 1818-1827). This quantity carries information on the timescale ofre-orientation of the transition dipole moment, which is related to thedynamics of inter-chromophore energy transfer. The polarization- andwavelength-dependent dynamics may be used to build a comprehensivepicture of singlet EET. Changes in the different lifetime components andtheir relative contributions to the total PL dynamics will provideadditional input for the CPEC EET model.

To distinguish between singlet and triplet dynamics, pump/probetransient absorption measurements may be performed. Singlet and tripletexcitons in conjugated polymers are known to exhibit different dynamicaland spectral pump/probe signatures. (Cook, S.; Ohkita, H.; Durrant, J.R.; Kim, Y.; Benson-Smith, J. J.; Nelson, J.; Bradley, D. D. C. SingletExciton Transfer and Fullerene Triplet Formation in Polymer-FullereneBlend Films. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2006, 89, 101128; Vella, J. H.;Parthasarathy, A.; Schanze, K. S. Triplet Sensitization in an AnionicPoly(phenyleneethynylene) Conjugated Polyelectrolyte by Cationic IridiumComplexes. J. Phys. Chem. A 2013, 117, 7818-7822; Zimmerman, P. M.;Zhang, Z.; Musgrave, C. B. Singlet Fission in Pentacene throughMulti-Exciton Quantum States. Nat. Chem. 2010, 2, 648-652; Burrows, H.D.; Fonseca, S. M.; Dias, F. B.; de Melo, J. S.; Monkman, A. P.; Scherf,U.; Pradhan, S. Singlet Excitation Energy Harvesting and TripletEmission in the Self-Assembled System Poly{1,4-Phenylene-[9,9-Bis(4-Phenoxy-Butyl sulfonate)]fluorene-2, 7-Diyl}copolymer/tris(bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) in Aqueous Solution. Adv. Mater.2009, 21, 1155-1159). Since triplet energy transfer is suspected to takepart in the photoprotection mechanisms of natural light-harvestingorganisms, (Scholes, G. D.; Fleming, G. R.; Olaya-Castro, A.; vanGrondelle, R. Lessons from Nature about Solar Light Harvesting. Nat.Chem. 2011, 3, 763-774; Ballottari, M.; Mozzo, M.; Girardon, J.;Hienerwadel, R.; Bassi, R. Chlorophyll Triplet Quenching andPhotoprotection in the Higher Plant Monomeric Antenna Protein Lhcb5. J.Phys. Chem. B 2013, 117, 11337-1134; Gust, D.; Moore, T. a.; Moore, A.L.; Kuciauskas, D.; Liddell, P. a.; Halbert, B. D. Mimicry of CarotenoidPhotoprotection in Artificial Photosynthetic Reaction Centers:Triplet-Triplet Energy Transfer by a Relay Mechanism. J. Photochem.Photobiol. B Biol. 1998, 43, 209-216; Tian, L.; Dinc, E.; Croce, R.LHCII Populations in Different Quenching States Are Present in theThylakoid Membranes in a Ratio That Depends on the Light Conditions. J.Phys. Chem. Lett. 2015, 2339-2344) it is important to determine theyield and dynamics of triplets, particularly as a function of incidentlight intensity.

Characterizing the CPEC Microstructure

In order to characterize the equilibrium and nonequilibrium nm-scale andÅ-scale structure of both CPEC solution and solid phases, one option isto combine synchrotron small-angle and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXSand WAXS, respectively) with resonant elastic X-ray scattering (REXS).Since SAXS provides information about the structure averaged over theelectron density of CPEC components, (Chu, B.; Hsiao, B. S. Small-AngleX-Ray Scattering of Polymers. Chem. Rev. 2001, 101, 1727-1761)energy-dependent REXS performed around the C, N and O K-edges will allowfor additional scattering contrast variation resulting from the energydependence of the near-edge X-ray absorption cross-section in thevicinity of the absorption edge. (Wang, C.; Lee, D. H.; Hexemer, A.;Kim, M. I.; Zhao, W.; Hasegawa, H.; Ade, H.; Russell, T. P. Defining theNanostructured Morphology of Triblock Copolymers Using Resonant SoftX-Ray Scattering. Nano Lett. 2011, 11, 3906-3911; Virgili, J. M.; Tao,Y.; Kortright, J. B.; Balsara, N. P.; Segalman, R. a. Analysis of OrderFormation in Block Copolymer Thin Films Using Resonant Soft X-RayScattering. Macromolecules 2007, 40, 2092-2099; Kim, D. H.; Ayzner, A.L.; Appleton, A. L.; Schmidt, K.; Mei, J.; Toney, M. F.; Bao, Z.Comparison of the Photovoltaic Characteristics and Nanostructure ofFullerenes Blended with Conjugated Polymers with Siloxane-Terminated andBranched Aliphatic Side Chains. Chem. Mater. 2013, 25, 431-440; Liu, F.;Gu, Y.; Jung, J. W.; Jo, W. H.; Russell, T. P. On the Morphology ofPolymer-Based Photovoltaics. J. Polym. Sci. Part B Polym. Phys. 2012,50, 1018-1044). Phenyl and thiophene C absorption can be spectrallydistinguished; in the case of N and O, only one of the two componentscontains the corresponding heteroatom. (Watts, B.; Swaraj, S.; Nordlund,D.; Luning, J.; Ade, H. Calibrated NEXAFS Spectra of Common ConjugatedPolymers. J. Chem. Phys. 2011, 134, 024702). Thus, structure in thevicinity of the each component can be studied using REXS. Additionally,NIST can be used to perform neutron scattering experiments, which mayallow for additional contrast variation via solvent deuteration.

While not wishing to be bound by one particular theory, generally, thepolymer coil and complex structure is expected to resemble fractalaggregates, leading to power-law scaling of the intensity withscattering vector. (Chu, B.; Hsiao, B. S. Small-Angle X-Ray Scatteringof Polymers. Chem. Rev. 2001, 101, 1727-1761; Martin, J. E.; Hurd, a. J.Scattering from Fractals. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 1987, 20, 61-78;Pfeifer, P.; Avnir, D. Chemistry in Noninteger Dimensions between Twoand Three. I. Fractal Theory of Heterogeneous Surfaces. J. Chem. Phys.1983, 79, 3558; Beaucage, G. Determination of Branch Fraction andMinimum Dimension of Mass-Fractal Aggregates. Phys. Rev. E 2004, 70,031401; Gan, H.; Li, Y.; Liu, H.; Wang, S.; Li, C.; Yuan, M.; Liu, X.;Wang, C.; Jiang, L.; Zhu, D. Self-Assembly of Conjugated Polymers andDs-Oligonucleotides Directed Fractal-like Aggregates. Biomacromolecules2007, 8, 1723-1729; Teixeira, J. Small-Angle Scattering by FractalSystems. J. Appl. Crystallogr. 1988, 21, 781-785; Carrillo, J.-M. Y.;Dobrynin, A. V. Polyelectrolytes in Salt Solutions: Molecular DynamicsSimulations. Macromolecules 2011, 44, 5798-5816). The scaling exponentis related to the mass and surface fractal dimension and, thus, tointra-complex diffusivity and inter-chain connectivity—quantities thatlikely have a direct effect on EET dynamics. WAXS may be used to obtaininformation on local correlations on the Å-scale, such as apreviously-observed “polyelectrolyte peak”. (Spiteri, M. N.; Williams,C. E.; Boue, F. Pearl-Necklace-Like Chain Conformation of HydrophobicPolyelectrolyte: A SANS Study of Partially Sulfonated Polystyrene in.2007, 6679-6691).

To further characterize the solution microstructure, a combination ofstatic light scattering and dynamic light scattering (SLS and DLS,respectively) may be used. SLS effectively expands the range ofscattering vectors and thus length scales probed by SAXS to largersizes, whereas DLS provides information on the diffusive modes of theCPE solutions. In particular, it is known that for polyelectrolytesolutions, the DLS autocorrelation must be analyzed at differentscattering vectors, and the scattering vector dependence of thediffusion coefficients carries information on the nature of theparticular diffusive mode. (Sedlák, M. The Ionic Strength Dependence ofthe Structure and Dynamics of Polyelectrolyte Solutions as Seen by LightScattering: The Slow Mode Dilemma. J. Chem. Phys. 1996, 105, 10123;Skibinska, L.; Gapinski, J.; Liu, H.; Patkowski, A.; Fischer, E. W.;Pecora, R. Effect of Electrostatic Interactions on the Structure andDynamics of a Model Polyelectrolyte. II. Intermolecular Correlations. J.Chem. Phys. 1999, 110, 1794; Phillies, G. D. J. Is the PolyelectrolyteExtraordinary Phase a Cluster-Forming Glass? Macromolecules 2001, 34,8745-8751; Ermi, B. D.; Amis, E. J. Model Solutions for Studies ofSalt-Free Polyelectrolytes. Macromolecules 1996, 29, 2701-2703).Particular diffusive modes may be associated with the interactionbetween the ionosphere of small ions with those of the polyions.

Using the Stanford Soft Materials Laboratory, zeta potentialmeasurements may be used to obtain the net charge on the solubleaggregates, and viscoelastic measurements would allow for an evaluationof the dynamic moduli of the solid phases.

Since both CPEC components absorb light strongly, the composition of theliquid and solid phases may be determined quantitatively via fitting ofthe absorption and emission spectra to a linear combination of theisolated components of known concentrations. The solid component may beisolated using ultracentrifugation. While not wishing to be bound by anyone particular theory, it is anticipated that in certain cases, the CPEUV-Visible absorption spectra of the CPEC may depart significantly fromthe isolated components due to changes in chromophore extent, which maycomplicate quantitative analysis. In this case, since the near-edgeX-ray absorption cross-sections differ for phenyl and thiophene C atomsas a function of energy but are independent of chromophore length, it isexpected that a linear combination fit of transmission X-ray absorptionspectra may allow for sidestepping the above complication. (Oji, H.;Mitsumoto, R.; Ito, E.; Ishii, H.; Ouchi, Y.; Seki, K.; Yokoyama, T.;Ohta, T.; Kosugi, N. Core Hole Effect in NEXAFS Spectroscopy ofPolycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Benzene, Chrysene, Perylene, andCoronene. J. Chem. Phys. 1998, 109, 10409).

Clarifying the Role of Conjugated Backbone Rigidity

Since the wavefunction extent along the CPE backbone will modulate itselectronic structure, it is important to determine how the backbonerigidity/average planarity affect the EET rate. Förster theory, modifiedto account for finite wavefunction extent, shows that the spatialrelationship between the donor and acceptor excitonic wavefunctions canhave a significant effect on EET. (Scholes, G. D.; Fleming, G. R.;Olaya-Castro, A.; van Grondelle, R. Lessons from Nature about SolarLight Harvesting. Nat. Chem. 2011, 3, 763-774; Scholes, G. D.;Jordanides, X. J.; Fleming, G. R. Adapting the Förster Theory of EnergyTransfer for Modeling Dynamics in Aggregated Molecular Assemblies. J.Phys. Chem. B 2001, 105, 1640-1651; Scholes, G. D. Long-Range ResonanceEnergy Transfer in Molecular Systems. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2003, 54,57-87). Moreover, while not wishing to be bound by any one particulartheory, it is possible that rigid systems may ultimately lead toenhanced coherent energy transfer, in addition to incoherentFörster-like hops. However, studying coherent transport involvesspectroscopic techniques that go beyond TRPL and two-pulse pump/probeexperiments. (Cheng, Y.-C.; Fleming, G. R. Dynamics of Light Harvestingin Photosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2009, 60, 241-262; Scholes, G.D.; Fleming, G. R.; Olaya-Castro, A.; van Grondelle, R. Lessons fromNature about Solar Light Harvesting. Nat. Chem. 2011, 3, 763-774).

With PFP fixed, it is possible to compare the microstructure and EETcharacteristics of the following partial thiophene-based backbonechemical series: regiorandom PTAK, regioregular PTAK, and itsbenzodithiophene analogue. The relevant chemical structures are shown inFIG. 7A. Regioregular polythiophene has a longer average conjugatedlength than its regiorandom analogue. The benzodithiophene derivative—amore rigid monomer than single thiophene—may be synthesized. Regiorandomand regioregular PTAK are commercially-available. While not wishing tobe bound by any one particular theory, it is expected that theinter-CPEC EET rate will differ substantially depending on the averagechromophore length and hence mean backbone planarity.

Role of Solution Dielectric Constant in CPEC Thermodynamics

As discussed in the herein, the ionosphere is an important factor indetermine both the partitioning of the two CPEC phases as well as theresulting photophysics. To build on this knowledge, it is important toconsider the following questions: 1. How does the chemical structure ofthe excess salt affect complex solution stability and thin filmmorphology? It is well-known that in equilibrium a fraction ofcounterions will condense onto the polyion. (Carrillo, J.-M. Y.;Dobrynin, A. V. Polyelectrolytes in Salt Solutions: Molecular DynamicsSimulations. Macromolecules 2011, 44, 5798-5816; Skibinska, L.;Gapinski, J.; Liu, H.; Patkowski, A.; Fischer, E. W.; Pecora, R. Effectof Electrostatic Interactions on the Structure and Dynamics of a ModelPolyelectrolyte. II. Intermolecular Correlations. J. Chem. Phys. 1999,110, 1794; Jia, P.; Yang, Q.; Gong, Y.; Zhao, J. Dynamic Exchange ofCounterions of Polystyrene Sulfonate. J. Chem. Phys. 2012, 136, 084904;Goerigk, G.; Schweins, R.; Huber, K.; Ballauff, M. The Distribution ofSr 2+ Counterions around Polyacrylate Chains Analyzed by AnomalousSmall-Angle X-Ray Scattering. Europhys. Lett. 2004, 66, 331-337). Whilenot wishing to be bound by one particular theory, this is expected tomodulate the charge density and, thus, the interaction with theoppositely-charged CPE. It is important to examine the effect of thehalogen series, as well as a series of ions with varyinghydrophilic/hydrophobic fragment ratios on complex formation between thetwo CPEs. While not wishing to be bound by any one particular theory, itis expected that the changes relative interaction strength of the ionwith water, the polar CPE sidechain terminus and the nonpolar backbonewill lead to nontrivial microstructural changes. Representative examplesof electrolytes with varying hydrophobicity are shown in FIG. 8. Initialfocus will be on monovalent ions. It is believed likely that thesolution metastability will be a sensitive function of the nature of theexcess salt. Using simple salts, the validity of the wide-spread Voornand Overbeek (VO) model in describing CPEC phase composition can betested. (Priftis, D.; Xia, X.; Margossian, K. O.; Perry, S. L.; Leon,L.; Qin, J.; de Pablo, J. J.; Tirrell, M. Ternary, TunablePolyelectrolyte Complex Fluids Driven by Complex Coacervation.Macromolecules 2014, 47, 3076-3085; Perry, S.; Li, Y.; Priftis, D.;Leon, L.; Tirrell, M. The Effect of Salt on the Complex Coacervation ofVinyl Polyelectrolytes. Polymers. 2014, 6, 1756-1772; Overbeek, J. T.G.; Voorn, M. J. Phase Separation of Polyelectrolyte Solutions. Theoryof Complex Coacervation. J. Cell. Phys. 1957, 49, 7-26). Poor agreementwill likely indicate the importance of accounting for themonomer-monomer interaction, which is absent in the VO model. 2. What isthe role of solvent composition, i.e., how does the CPEC evolve withincreasing mole fraction of the non-aqueous solvent component?Particularly important are solvent mixtures where the nonaqueouscomponent is expected to preferentially solvate the backbone, whilewater solvates the sidechains. Initial focus may be on THF and dioxane;as the latter has been demonstrated to stabilize single-component CPEsolutions. (Marques, A. T.; Burrows, H. D.; Seixas de Melo, J. S.;Valente, A. J. M.; Justino, L. L. G.; Scherf, U.; Fron, E.; Rocha, S.;Hofkens, J.; Snedden, E. W.; et al. Spectroscopic Properties,Excitation, and Electron Transfer in an Anionic Water-SolublePoly(fluorene-Alt-Phenylene)-Perylenediimide Copolymer. J. Phys. Chem. B2012, 116, 7548-7559; Burrows, H. D.; Fonseca, S. M.; Silva, C. L.;Pais, A. a C. C.; Tapia, M. J.; Pradhan, S.; Scherf, U. Aggregation ofthe Hairy Rod Conjugated Polyelectrolyte poly{1,4-Phenylene-[9,9-bis(4-Phenoxybutylsulfonate)]fluorene-2,7-Diyl} inAqueous Solution: An Experimental and Molecular Modelling Study. Phys.Chem. Chem. Phys. 2008, 10, 4420-4428). Experimental results suggestthat the fraction of THF in water can be used to tune both theabsorption and emission spectra of the PFP:PTAK CPEC solution (notshown). 3. What is the effect of varying sidechain charge density alongthe PTAK chain? (Murnen, H. K.; Rosales, A. M.; Dobrynin, A. V.;Zuckermann, R. N.; Segalman, R. a. Persistence Length ofPolyelectrolytes with Precisely Located Charges. Soft Matter 2013, 9,90). Since the enthalpic driving force for CPEC formation is related tothe charge density along the backbone, it is anticipated thatcontrolling the extent of the PTAK's alkylcarboxylate sidechainionization will provide a knob to tune the relative propensity forcomplex formation. Fractional PTAK sidechain ionization may becontrolled by varying the solution pH with either HCl or H₃PO₄, neitherof which dope the conjugated backbone while protonating thecarboxylates.

A panchromatic LHA array may be formed, consisting of lower bandgap CPEsand likely more than two CPE components. “Push-pull” copolymer CPEderivatives, based on established electron-rich and electron-poormonomers, may be synthesized in order to push the absorption profilefurther to the near-IR and, thus, expand the spectral light-harvestingrange of the supramolecular assembly. (Mei, J.; Kim, D. H.; Ayzner, A.L.; Toney, M. F.; Bao, Z. Siloxane-Terminated Solubilizing Side Chains:Bringing Conjugated Polymer Backbones Closer and Boosting HoleMobilities in Thin-Film Transistors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133,20130-20133).

Example 3

RC Formation and Interaction with LHA

In natural photosystems, the RC is composed of a special pair consistingof a donor chromophore that differs from peripheral LHA and aphotoexcited electron acceptor. The LHA complexes funnel their excitedstates directionally to the special donor chromophore, which thentransfers an electron to the acceptor. The spatially separatedelectron/hole pair is the precursor state to fuel-generatingphotochemistry. (Gust, D.; Moore, T. a; Moore, a L. MimickingPhotosynthetic Solar Energy Transduction. Acc. Chem. Res. 2001, 34,40-48; Kodis, G.; Liddell, P. a.; Moore, A. L.; Moore, T. a.; Gust, D.Synthesis and Photochemistry of a Carotene-porphyrin-fullerene ModelPhotosynthetic Reaction Center. J. Phys. Org. Chem. 2004, 17, 724-734;Gust, D.; Moore, T. a; Moore, A. L. Solar Fuels via ArtificialPhotosynthesis. Acc. Chem. Res. 2009, 42, 1890-1898). One option is tomimic the RC special pair with a water-soluble phthalocyanine-baseddonor and fullerene-based water-soluble acceptors (FIG. 9A-FIG. 9C). Oneoption is to use metal-free phthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid (TSPc) asthe special pair donor, due to a) the excellent spectral overlap betweenthe emission of PTAK and the absorption of TSPc, making TSPc an EETacceptor with respect to PTAK emission (as shown in FIG. 3B), and b)because electron transfer between phthalocyanines and C₆₀ is known to behighly efficient. It is also important to consider substitution patternsof the macrocycle periphery to tune the interaction strength with bothfullerene and CPE derivatives.

Assembly of RC Special Pair

Solution Coupling

The carboxylic acid groups of the fullerene may be used as anchors toform dynamic hydrogen-bonds with the nitrogen atoms of the macrocycleinterior as well as the peripheral sulfonic acid/sulfonate groups,especially as the solution dielectric constant and pH are varied. It wasdetermined that the state of TSPc solution aggregation—likely due toπ-stacked selfassembly—can be controlled with solvent mixtures similarto those described in section herein, as well as by varying theconcentration. Previous results have shown that pH can serve the samerole. (Nishida, K. R. a.; Wiggins, B.; Hipps, K. W.; Mazur, U.Structural and Electronic Properties of Columnar SupramolecularAssemblies Formed from Ionic Metal-Free Phthalocyanine on Au(111). J.Phys. Chem. C 2011, 115, 16305-16314). The solution interaction betweenmonomeric TSPc and its assemblies with fullerene derivatives may becompared. Successful coupling of the TSPc rod-like assembly and thefullerene acceptor will help diminish charge recombination. This isbecause, once the interfacial electron/hole pair is generated, thedelocalization of the hole wavefunction along the π-stacked TSPcassembly is expected to lower the recombination probability and, thus,assist in charge separation.

Quenching of TSPc PL and appearance of charged state absorption inpump/probe experiments will signify proximal coupling between the twocomponents. Charges have a qualitatively different absorption spectra inconjugated organic systems than excited-state absorption of neutralexcitons. Thus, the two states can be distinguished in a pump/probeexperiment. (Ayzner, A. L.; Doan, S. C.; Tremolet de Villers, B.;Schwartz, B. J. Ultrafast Studies of Exciton Migration and PolaronFormation in Sequentially Solution-Processed ConjugatedPolymer/Fullerene Quasi-Bilayer Photovoltaics. J. Phys. Chem. Lett.2012, 3, 2281-2287). Electron/hole recombination rates may be studiedwith TRPL. Recombination of the electron/hole pair leads to weak butmeasurable near-IR PL. The dynamics of this near-IR emission band willreflect the rate of charge recombination. Of importance is relating themicrostructure of the RC complex and its chemical environment to theforward and back ET.

Assembly Templated by Graphene Oxide

Previous work in the field has shown that phthalocyanines can betemplated to grow vertically off of strongly-interacting surfaces, suchas metals and graphite. Commercially-available ribbons of graphene oxideare particularly interesting for this purpose, since they containpatches of π-electron-rich regions as well as regions containingcarboxylic acid defects (FIG. 10A). Thus, it is believed thatsimultaneously grafting of water soluble fullerenes and TSPc may beaccomplished. The formation of associated complexes of TSPc, fullereneand graphene oxide may be probed using SAXS and DLS. In principle, themolecular form factor and, thus, the SAXS intensity will differconsiderably between nearly spherical and cylindrical aggregates,(Svergun, D. I.; Koch, M. H. J. Small-Angle Scattering Studies ofBiological Macromolecules in Solution. Reports Prog. Phys. 2003, 66,1735-1782) providing a means to identify aggregate solution morphology.Depolarized DLS may also be attempted to obtain rotational diffusioncoefficients, although the smallness of the depolarized scatteredcomponent likely make unambiguous microstructure determinationchallenging. (Skibinska, L.; Gapinski, J.; Liu, H.; Patkowski, A.;Fischer, E. W.; Pecora, R. Effect of Electrostatic Interactions on theStructure and Dynamics of a Model Polyelectrolyte. II. IntermolecularCorrelations. J. Chem. Phys. 1999, 110, 1794; Glidden, M.; Muschol, M.Characterizing Gold Nanorods in Solution Using Depolarized Dynamic LightScattering. J. Phys. Chem. C 2012, 116, 8128-8137; Phillies, G. NeutralPolymer Slow Mode May Signify an Incipient Growth-FrustratedDomain-Forming Glass. Phys. Rev. E 2004, 69, 011801).

In the event that TSPc interacts weakly with carboxylic-acidfunctionalized fullerenes, the ability of nonaqueous co-solvents toforce hydrogen bonding between the fullerene acid and TSPc may beconsidered. One option is to bypass the TSPc component and proceeddirectly to coupling CPEC LHA to either freely diffusion fullerenes orthose affixed to an inorganic surface.

Fullerene-Functionalized TiO₂ Nanoparticle Surfaces

The general formation of organic/inorganic interfaces capable of ET areof interest for linking charge-separated states with further chemicalreactions catalyzed by the inorganic. The first important motif is afullerene malonate derivative bound to a TiO₂ surface using the strongcarboxyl linkage, as shown in FIG. 10B. (Thomas, A. G.; Syres, K. L.Adsorption of Organic Molecules on Rutile TiO2 and Anatase TiO2 SingleCrystal Surfaces. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 4207-4217). Binding may bestudied with XPS and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Charge transferacross the fullerene/TiO₂ interface will assist in separation of theelectron/hole pair generated at the TSPc/fullerene interface. Importantcompositions include both nanoparticulate TiO₂ thin films prepared bypyrolysis of Ti isopropoxide in air, (Sorensen, C. M. Light Scatteringby Fractal Aggregates: A Review. Aerosol Sci. Tech. 2001, 35, 648-687)as well as via preparation of water-soluble, stable TiO₂ nanoparticlesas detailed by Seo et al. (Seo, J. W.; Chung, H.; Kim, M. Y.; Lee, J.;Choi, I. H.; Cheon, J. Development of Water-Soluble Single-CrystallineTiO2 Nanoparticles for Photocatalytic Cancer-Cell Treatment. Small 2007,3, 850-853), both of which are hereby incorporated herein by referencein their entirety as though fully set forth.

Coupling CPEC LHA with RC

Once a stable RC assembly is formed, CPEC LHA may be interfaced with theRC. The HOMO of PTAK will be higher in energy than that of TSPc, therebyensuring that holes experience a thermodynamic driving force to migrateaway from the TSPc/fullerene interface towards PTAK. (Hatton, R. a.;Blanchard, N. P.; Miller, A. J.; Silva, S. R. P. A Multi-Wall CarbonNanotube-Molecular Semiconductor Composite for Bi-Layer Organic SolarCells. Phys. E Low-Dimensional Syst. Nanostructures 2007, 37, 124-127;Huang, F.; Wu, H.; Wang, D.; Yang, W.; Cao, Y. Novel ElectroluminescentConjugated Polyelectrolytes Based on Polyfluorene. Chem. Mater. 2004,16, 708-716; Schumann, S.; Hatton, R. a.; Jones, T. S. OrganicPhotovoltaic Devices Based on Water-Soluble Copper Phthalocyanine. J.Phys. Chem. C 2011, 115, 4916-4921; Al-Ibrahim, M.; Roth, H. K.;Schroedner, M.; Konkin, A.; Zhokhavets, U.; Gobsch, G.; Scharff, P.;Sensfuss, S. The Influence of the Optoelectronic Properties ofpoly(3-Alkylthiophenes) on the Device Parameters in Flexible PolymerSolar Cells. Org. Electron. physics, Mater. Appl. 2005, 6, 65-77). Thiswill help further diminish the electron/hole recombination rate. Bycarefully controlling the net charge on the CPEC, hydrogen-bonding andanion-π interactions may be used to assemble the CPEC-RC supercomplex.Combining EET, ET and near-IR PL94 dynamics with diverse structuralcharacterization tools allows for analyzing the complexity of thesupercomplex. While not wishing to be bound by any one particulartheory, given the propensity of CPECs to form metastable structures, itis believed that the order of species addition may play a major role.This was previously shown to the case for CPE/DNA/surfactant systems.(Monteserin, M.; Burrows, H. D.; Mallavia, R.; Di Paolo, R. E.;Maçanita, A. L.; Tapia, M. J. How to Change the Aggregation in theDNA/surfactant/cationic Conjugated Polyelectrolyte System through theOrder of Component Addition: Anionic versus Neutral Surfactants.Langmuir 2010, 26, 11705-11714).

The formation of the supercomplex is expected to be associated with asignificant increase in mean aggregate size in both the solution and thesolid state. The optical signature of RC-LHA supercomplex formation willbe efficient quenching of PTAK PL upon PFP excitation followed by aconcomitant increase in the transient absorption signal due to polaroniccharge states following ET. Diffusion-driven ET between LHA and RC willbe too slow to lead to appreciable charged state absorption. It isimportant to monitor and compare changes in PL dynamics (decay componentlifetimes and amplitudes) and spectral position between the LHA/RCsupersystem and the components in isolation. Furthermore,temperature-dependent SAXS and SLS intensities may be used to studychanges in complexation. If the LHA and RC have a propensity toself-organize with a driving force exceeding kbT, the size distributionis expected to evolve towards decreased particle sizes with increasingT. In circumstances in which strong coupling between LHA and RCs doesnot occur, one option is to trap the different components in mutualproximity within either the inside compartment or within the membrane ofa liposome, as described in more detail below.

Example 4

Stabilization and Encapsulation with Surfactants

CPEs can interact with both ionic and nonionic surfactant molecules,which have a strong effect on CPE chain conformation and thermodynamicstability. (Tapia, M. J.; Burrows, H. D.; Valente, a J. M.; Pradhan, S.;Scherf, U.; Lobo, V. M. M.; Pina, J.; Seixas de Melo, J. Interactionbetween the Water Soluble poly {1,4-Phenylene-[9,9-bis(4-PhenoxyButylsulfonate)]fluorene-2,7-Diyl} Copolymer and Ionic SurfactantsFollowed by Spectroscopic and Conductivity Measurements. J. Phys. Chem.B 2005, 109, 19108-19115; Burrows, H. D.; Tapia, M. J.; Silva, C. L.;Pais, A. a C. C.; Fonseca, S. M.; Pina, J.; de Melo, J. S.; Wang, Y.;Marques, E. F.; Knaapila, M.; et al. Interplay of Electrostatic andHydrophobic Effects with Binding of Cationic Gemini Surfactants and aConjugated Polyanion: Experimental and Molecular Modeling Studies. J.Phys. Chem. B 2007, 111, 4401-4410; Knaapila, M.; Evans, R. C.; Garamus,V. M.; Almásy, L.; Székely, N. K.; Gutacker, A.; Scherf, U.; Burrows, H.D. Structure and “Surfactochromic” Properties of ConjugatedPolyelectrolyte (CPE): Surfactant Complexes between a CationicPolythiophene and SDS in Water. Langmuir 2010, 26, 15634-15643; Burrows,H. D.; Tapia, M. J.; Fonseca, S. M.; Pradhan, S.; Scherf, U.; Silva, C.L.; Pais, A. a C. C.; Valente, A. J. M.; Schillén, K.; Alfredsson, V.;et al. Solubilization of poly{1,4-Phenylene-[9,9-bis(4-Phenoxy-Butylsulfonate)]fluorene-2,7-Diyl} inWater by Nonionic Amphiphiles. Langmuir 2009, 25, 5545-5556). One optionis to use CPE-surfactant interactions to tune the microstructure andstability of CPECs. A cartoon of this system with an anionic surfactantis shown in FIG. 11A-FIG. 11B.

Single-Chain Amphiphiles

For cationic CPE complexes interacting with double-stranded DNA, it hasbeen shown that not only the molecular structure of the surfactant, butalso the order of species-addition, (Monteserin, M.; Burrows, H. D.;Mallavia, R.; Di Paolo, R. E.; Maçanita, A. L.; Tapia, M. J. How toChange the Aggregation in the DNA/surfactant/cationic ConjugatedPolyelectrolyte System through the Order of Component Addition: Anionicversus Neutral Surfactants. Langmuir 2010, 26, 11705-11714) determinesthe final state microstructure and optical properties, with thesurfactant concentration playing a major role. While not wishing to bebound by one particular theory, given that surfactants are known fortheir stabilizing effects on CPEs in aqueous solutions, it is believedthat a ternary anionic CPE/cationic CPE/surfactant assembly holdspromise for also stabilizing the CPEC. It is worth investigating therole of charged, zwitterionic and nonionic surfactants on the opticalproperties and microstructure of the CPEC as a function of D/A polymermole ratio and total polymer concentration. While not wishing to bebound by one particular theory, it is believed that whether the chargeon one CPE is fully or incompletely compensated by the charge on thesurfactant component will have a significant effect on CPECconformations and phase behavior. Initial structural studies withsurfactants previously used to stabilize isolated CPEs suggest that thesolution phase of a CPEC system depends sensitively on the nature ofsurfactant, with ionic vs. nonionic amphiphiles leading to substantialdifferences in phase partitioning (not shown). It is believed that thechange in solution microstructure, and by extension CPEC photophysics,will evolve in a nontrivial manner as the micellization phase transitionis approached. It is also believed that the presence of amphiphiles mayassist in stabilizing and tuning the structure, EET and ET dynamics ofRC-LHA assemblies.

Vesicle Formation and Encapsulation with Double-Chain Amphiphiles

One important technical application is to construct a “soft”light-harvesting unit that contains multiple electronically-coupledartificial photosystems working in parallel to drive solar fuelgeneration, akin to natural photosynthesis in the chloroplast'sthylakoid. One of the primary requirements for a quasi-independentlight-harvesting unit is encapsulation and compartmentalization, whichin Nature is achieved via membrane enclosures. (Croce, R.; vanAmerongen, H. Light-Harvesting and Structural Organization ofPhotosystem II: From Individual Complexes to Thylakoid Membrane. J.Photochem. Photobiol. B. 2011, 104, 142-153). One option is formingvesicles with double-chain phospholipids in the presence of CPE-basedLHA and RCs with the objective of encapsulating the primary componentsin a membrane. This will form the basis for an artificiallight-harvesting protocell. (Dzieciol, A. J.; Mann, S. Designs for Life:Protocell Models in the Laboratory. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41, 79).Deamer et al. showed that a commercially-available derivative ofoleoylphosphatidycholine readily formed closed liposomes upon drying andrehydrating. (Shew, R. L.; Deamer, D. W. Hemoglobin and AlkalinePhosphatase Were Each Encapsulated in Phosphatidylcholine LiposomesUsing a Dehydration-Rehydration Cycle for Liposome Formation. In ThisMethod, Iiposomes Prepared by Sonication Are Mixed in Aqueous Solutionwith the Solute Desi. 1985, 816, 1-8). SLS, transmission/grazingincidence SAXS and light microscopy may be used to study vesicleformation. Incorporation may be studied with light and fluorescencemicroscopy with the objective of observing membrane boundaries and PLthat originates from within the boundary.

Light-harvesting machinery may be contained on the inside of the vesicleor the CPEC-based assembly may be incorporated into the membrane. It ispossible that changes in the chemical structure of the phospholipid, thepH and the mixing temperature can encourage closed liposome formation inthe presence of LHA-RC assemblies.

At the interface between energy science, optical spectroscopy andpolymer physical chemistry, this invention may help improve utilizationof solar energy by constructing light-weight, supramolecularphoton-harvesting units, thus addressing the problem of diminishingfossil fuel resources.

Example 5

Introduction

Photosynthetic organisms have mastered the use of “soft” macromolecularassemblies for light absorption and concentration of electronicexcitation energy. Nature's design centers on an optically-inactiveprotein-based backbone that acts as a host matrix for an array oflight-harvesting pigment molecules. The pigments are organized in spacesuch that excited states can migrate between molecules, ultimatelydelivering the energy to the reaction center. Here we report ourinvestigation of an artificial light-harvesting energy transfer antennabased on complexes of oppositely charged conjugated polyelectrolytes(CPEs). The conjugated backbone and the charged sidechains of the CPElead to an architecture that simultaneously functions as a structuralscaffold and an electronic energy “highway”. We find that the process ofionic complex formation leads to a remarkable change in the excitonicwavefunction of the energy acceptor, which manifests in a dramaticincrease in the fluorescence quantum yield. Without being bound bytheory, we argue that the extended backbone of the donor CPE effectivelytemplates a planarized acceptor polymer, leading to excited states thatare highly delocalized along the polymer backbone.

Over billions of years, natural organisms such as bacteria and plantshave evolved the exceedingly complex, supramolecular light-harvestingmachinery to ensure efficient conversion of sunlight to chemicalpotential energy. (Barter, L. M.; Durrant, J. R.; Klug, D. R. AQuantitative Structure-Function Relationship for the Photosystem IIReaction Center: Supermolecular Behavior in Natural Photosynthesis.Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2003, 100, 946-51; Croce, R.; van Amerongen,H. Natural Strategies for Photosynthetic Light Harvesting. Nat. Chem.Biol. 2014, 10, 492-501; McConnell, I.; Li, G.; Brudvig, G. W. EnergyConversion in Natural and Artificial Photosynthesis. Chem. Biol. 2010,17, 434-47; Scholes, G. D.; Fleming, G. R.; Olaya-Castro, A.; vanGrondelle, R. Lessons from Nature About Solar Light Harvesting. Nat.Chem. 2011, 3, 763-7). Given the nearly inexhaustible source of solarphotons and the success of natural photosynthesis, light-harvestingarchitectures based on the general principles employed by Nature areattractive for solar generation of chemical fuels. This involvesdirectionally funneling photogenerated electronic excited states(excitons) to a molecular interface, where generation of electron/holepairs and their subsequent spatial separation takes place. Uponseparation, charges cascade down an electron transport chain to theprotein assemblies that subsequently drive fuel-generating biochemicalreactions. (Blankenship, R. E. Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis;Wiley, 2014).

The elegance of natural supramolecular organization and its associatedefficiency of light harvesting inspires us to mimic this photosyntheticmachinery in the laboratory. We seek to construct a modular, “soft”artificial photosystem capable of efficient light absorption, electronicenergy transfer (EET) and long-lived charge generation. This goalrequires creating a supramolecular assembly with subunits capable ofcarrying out the above photophysical processes. To increase theeffective absorption cross-section of the photosystem, Nature uses anarray of peripheral proteins that serve as an optically-inactivestructural scaffolding for pigment molecules. These complexes arecollectively known as light-harvesting antennae (LHA). Excitonsgenerated in pigments within LHA are directionally funneled via acombination of coherent and incoherent EET to a “reaction center”, wherethe exciton is energetically trapped prior to generation ofelectron/hole pairs via electron transfer. Thus, efficient EET is ofparamount importance for LHA function. (Scholes, G. D.; Fleming, G. R.;Olaya-Castro, A.; van Grondelle, R. Lessons from Nature About SolarLight Harvesting. Nat. Chem. 2011, 3, 763-74; Fassioli, F.; Dinshaw, R.;Arpin, P. C.; Scholes, G. D. Photosynthetic Light Harvesting: Excitonsand Coherence. J. R. Soc., Interface 2014, 11, 20130901; Olaya-Castro,A.; Scholes, G. D. Energy Transfer from Förster-Dexter Theory to QuantumCoherent Light-Harvesting. Int. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2011, 30, 49-77;Scholes, G. D. Long-Range Resonance Energy Transfer in MolecularSystems. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2003, 54, 57-87; Stirbet, A. ExcitonicConnectivity between Photosystem IX Units: What Is It, and How toMeasure It? Photosynth. Res. 2013, 116, 189-214).

A large body of work exists describing the synthesis ofcovalently-linked LHA and reaction centers. Fairly large porphyrinarrays coupled to fullerene electron acceptors, (Bhosale, S. V.;Bhosale, S. V.; Shitre, G. V.; Bobe, S. R.; Gupta, A. SupramolecularChemistry of Protoporphyrin Ix and Its Derivatives. Eur. J. Org. Chem.2013, 2013, 3939-3954; Bottari, G.; Trukhina, O.; Ince, M.; Torres, T.Towards Artificial Photosynthesis: Supramolecular, Donor-Acceptor,Porphyrin- and Phthalocyanine/Carbon Nanostructure Ensembles. Coord.Chem. Rev. 2012, 256, 2453-2477; Elemans, J. A. A. W.; van Hameren, R.;Nolte, R. J. M.; Rowan, A. E. Molecular Materials by Self-Assembly ofPorphyrins, Phthalocyanines, and Perylenes. Adv. Mater. 2006, 18,1251-1266; Fukuzumi, S. Development of Bioinspired ArtificialPhotosynthetic Systems. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2008, 10, 2283-97) aswell as more exotic systems containing built-in energy gradients havebeen prepared to date, (Hayashi, H.; Sobczuk, A.; Bolag, A.; Sakai, N.;Matile, S. Antiparallel Three-Component Gradients in Double-ChannelSurface Architectures. Chem. Sci. 2014, 5, 4610-4614) among many others.However, it has been recognized that modularity in Nature is key forsuccessful photosystem function. (Croce, R.; van Amerongen, H. NaturalStrategies for Photosynthetic Light Harvesting. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2014,10, 492-501). Thus, self-organization appears to be a more attractiveavenue for construction of “soft” photosystems. This is because assemblyof modular subunits allows for greater flexibility and optimization ofthe individual parts, as opposed to the need to synthesize the entirecollection “from scratch” if the system must be altered in one or moreof its functions to suit a particular energetic, structural or stabilityrequirement.

A particularly attractive candidate to serve as the cornerstone for asupramolecular LHA assembly is the conjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE)—anamphiphilic polymer with a conjugated backbone and ionized (orionizable) sidechains. (Jiang, H.; Taranekar, P.; Reynolds, J. R.;Schanze, K. S. Conjugated Polyelectrolytes: Synthesis, Photophysics, andApplications. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2009, 48, 4300-16). Due totheir π-electron-rich backbones and ionic sidechains, CPEs hold greatpromise as electronic energy highways and macromolecular scaffolds.(Costa, T.; Garner, L. E.; Knaapila, M.; Thomas, A. W.; Rogers, S. E.;Bazan, G. C.; Burrows, H. D. Aggregation Properties of P-PhenyleneVinylene Based Conjugated Oligoelectrolytes with Surfactants. Langmuir2013, 29, 10047-58; Evans, R. C.; Knaapila, M.; Willis-Fox, N.; Kraft,M.; Terry, A.; Burrows, H. D.; Scherf, U. CationicPolythiophene-Surfactant Self-Assembly Complexes: Phase Transitions,Optical Response, and Sensing. Langmuir 2012, 28, 12348-56; Knaapila,M.; Evans, R. C.; Garamus, V. M.; Almasy, L.; Szekely, N. K.; Gutacker,A.; Scherf, U.; Burrows, H. D. Structure and “Surfactochromic”Properties of Conjugated Polyelectrolyte (Cpe): Surfactant Complexesbetween a Cationic Polythiophene and Sds in Water. Langmuir 2010, 26,15634-43; Pinto, S. M.; Burrows, H. D.; Pereira, M. M.; Fonseca, S. M.;Dias, F. B.; Mallavia, R.; Tapia, M. J. Singlet-Singlet Energy Transferin Self-Assembled Systems of the CationicPoly{9,9-Bis[6-N,N,N-Trimethylammonium)Hexyl]Fluorene-Co-1,4-Phenylene}with Oppositely Charged Porphyrins. J. Phys. Chem. B 2009, 113,16093-100). The electrostatic coupling leads to strong interactions,while controlling the charge density allows for tuning the cooperativestrength of this interaction. Furthermore, the strong influence of thebackbone microstructure on its optoelectronic properties, as well assensitivity to the local electric field, allows one to tune theenvironment to control EET, akin to how the polypeptide scaffoldingenvironment can tune the energy levels of natural pigments. Using CPEsin light-harvesting assemblies largely obviates the need for anoptically inactive scaffolding, thereby raising the density of subunitsthat directly contribute to excited state generation.

Herein, we describe assembly of oppositely charged CPEs as LHA withcomplementary electronic absorption and emission spectra, resulting inthermodynamically-allowed EET between the complexed CPEs. To the best ofour knowledge, this is the first time that a multi-CPE complex assemblyin solution has been studied. We show that both in solution and thesolid state, oppositely-charged CPEs readily form ionic complexes thatundergo inter-CPE EET. Further, we show that complex formationdrastically modulates the nature of the emitting excitonic wavefunctionrelative to isolated CPEs. Our results demonstrate that oppositelycharged complexes of donor/acceptor CPEs display rich photophysics andintriguing assembly behavior, underscoring the ability of thesematerials to function as tunable exciton relays for LHA applications.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Sample Preparation

The cationic conjugated polyelectrolytepoly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene]) (PFPI) with an average molecularweight (MW) of 21,000 Da and polydispersity index (PDI) of 1.2 wasobtained from Solaris Chem Inc. The anionic conjugated polyelectrolytepoly(alkylcarboxythiophene) derivative (PTAK) with an MW of 16,000 Daand a PDI of 2.2 was obtained from Rieke Metals. Both materials wereused as received.

Stock Solutions of PFP3I and PTAK (10.0 mg/mL) were prepared in Milli-Qwater and then mixed in desired molar ratios to form CPECs. The PTAKstock solution was stirred at ˜70° C. for 24 hours. The PFPI stocksolution was stirred at ˜55° C. for 72 hours. Care was taken to minimizeexposure to ambient lights. CPEC solutions with PFPI:PTAK charge ratiosof PFPI to PTAK (1:0.01, 1:0.05, 1:0.25) were prepared based on thenumber of chargers per monomer unit. The PFPI monomer carries a chargeof 2+, and the ionized PTAK monomer carries a 1-charge. The PFPIconcentration was fixed at 1 mg/mL for all CPEC solutions. The forwardaddition method is as follows. PFPI from the stock solution was added toMilli-Q water, after which PTAK stock was added dropwise to the solutionwhile stirring at room temperature to achieve the desired charge ratio.The order of CPE addition is switched in the reverse order. CPECsolutions were then stirred at ˜55° C. for 24 hours. In solutions with asolid/liquid phase coexistence, mixtures were centrifuged at 3400 rpmfor 30 minutes, after which the phases were separated for furthermeasurements.

Steady-State Spectroscopy

Optical density measurements were taken in 1.0 nm increments with aShimadzu UV-2700 Spectrophotometer with an integration time of 0.1seconds and a 2.0 nm slit width over the range of 300-800 nm.Photoluminescence measurements were taken using a Horiba Fluromax-4spectrofluorometer in a right-angle geometry in cuvettes with 1 mmpathlengths, with excitation wavelengths scanned in 5.0 nm incrementsand emissions measured in 1.0 nm increments over the range of 300-800nm. Liquid samples were measured with a Rayleigh masking slit width of5.0 nm and an integration time of 0.1 seconds. Solid samples were placedat an 87° angle relative to the incident beam and measured with aRayleigh masking slit width of 2.0 nm and an integration time of 0.05seconds.

Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS)

Solutions were filtered using 0.65 μm Millipore filter directly intoborosilicate glass test tubes. Samples were immersed in decalin to matchthe index of refraction of glass (n ˜1.33). All DLS measurements weremade on a Brookhaven BI-200SM goniometer system using a TurboCorr photoncounter and digital correlator at room temperature. The light source wasa CW Mini-L30 solid-state diode laser outputting 637 nm light withadjustable power limited to 35 mW. The laser power and optical densityfilter were adjusted in order not to exceed a signal intensity of 200kilocounts per second. Scattered photons were detected by an avalanchephotodiode detector. The normalized intensity correlation functions weretransformed to the normalized electric-field field correlation functionusing the Siegert regulation. The field correlation functions wereanalyzed using CONTIN, which is a regularized inverse Laplace transformalgorithm originally written in FORTRAN by Provencher and since emulatedby Marino in MATLAB. Distribution of relaxation times were obtained forscattering angles of 20 and 90 degrees with the regulation parameter (a)set to 0.1. Various choices for a as well as various grid densities forthe relaxation time space were explored. We found that relaxation timesobtained with different choices of a were similar. A larger value of awas avoided so as to not overly smooth the relaxation time distribution.Hydrodynamic radius values were obtained using the Stokes-Einsteinequation.

Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering (SAXS)

SAXS measurements were performed at beam line 4-2 at the StanfordSynchrotron Radiation Laboratory (SSRL) using a Rayonix MX225-HEdetector. Samples in thin-wall quartz capillary cell were irradiated bya 11 keV X-ray (1.17 Å) at a sample to detector distance of 3.5m. A setof 10 consecutive 1 second X-ray exposures were made on each sample atroom temperature. The scattering of the background (Milli-Q water) wassubtracted from solution scattering. To avoid degradation, the sampleswere oscillated during data collection. SasTool, a software packagedeveloped at SSRL, was used to convert collected 2D TIFF images tointensity vs. scattering vector and to subtract solvent scattering.

Time-Resolved Photoluminescence Spectroscopy

Time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) was carried out on ahome-built apparatus. The excitation source was a pulsed Super K EXTREME(NKT Photonics) supercontinuum laser coupled to a Super K SELECT (NKTPhotonics) acousto-optic filter and external RF driver (NKT Photonics)to select the wavelength of the excitation pulse. Measurements werecarried out at a 78 MHz pulse repetition rate with either 15.4 μW (420nm) or 97.6 μW (600 nm) power, as measured near the sample. Bothexcitation and emission beams were horizontally polarized by mountedGlan-Thompson polarizers (Thorlabs). Emission light was collimated andrefocused by a set of achromatic doublets (Thorlabs). Long pass filterswere used to minimize the influence of the reflected excitation beam.Emission wavelengths were selected by an Acton Spectra Pro SP-2300monochromator (Princeton Instruments), on which two detectors weremounted for steady-state and time-resolved measurements. An air-cooledPIXIS 100 CCD (Princeton Instruments) was used to record thesteady-state spectra on the fly. A hybrid PMT with minimal after-pulsing(Becker and Hickl) was used to record the time-resolved fluorescencedecay. An SPC-130 photon counting module (Becker and Hickl) coupled to aSimple-Tau 130 table top TCSPC system was used for photon counting.Emitted photons were collected for 5 seconds, and each measurement wasrepeated 50 times prior to averaging and subsequent analysis.

Results and Discussion

This investigation focuses on an oppositely charged pair of CPEs, thechemical structures of which are shown in FIG. 12A. The iodide salt ofthe cationic poly(fluorene-co-phenylene) (PFPI) derivative serves as theexcitonic donor, and the potassium salt of an anionic, regioregularpoly(thiophene) (PTAK) derivative acts as the energy acceptor. FIG. 12Bshows that the emission spectrum of PFPI spectrally overlaps the opticaldensity (OD) of PTAK, indicating that energy transfer isthermodynamically allowed. Since both CPEs emit readily detectablephotoluminescence (PL), and because the chain microstructure is stronglycoupled to the polymer photophysics, PL spectroscopy forms the basis forthis investigation. Aqueous CPE concentrations were chosen to be largeenough so as to observe phase separation beyond a criticalpolycation/polyanion charge ratio, allowing us to compare thephotophysics of the liquid and solid phases.

FIG. 13A-FIG. 13D shows steady-state PL contour maps with excitation andemission wavelengths plotted vertically and horizontally, respectively,of both isolated CPE solutions and their mixed solutions. The PL map of1 mg/mL PFPI is shown in FIG. 13A. The PL intensity is concentrated inthe region that corresponds to strong PFPI absorption, as shown in FIG.12B. However, because of the very large extinction coefficient of PFPI,at these concentrations the PL map appears as two PL bands as a functionof excitation wavelength (λ_(ex)). This is a consequence of the factthat PL intensity was collected at 90° with respect to the excitationbeam, resulting in imperfect spatial overlap of PL signal due toexcitations near the OD peak with the capture cross-section of thedetector.

FIG. 13B shows PL due to an aqueous PTAK solution at a concentrationmatched to the PFPI:PTAK complex at the 1:0.25 molar charge ratio (FIG.13D). A contrast scale that was different from the rest of the sampleshad to be used for this particular sample due its very low PL intensity;in fact, at these instrumental parameters, PL from lower concentrationsolutions was barely measurable. In addition to the observation thatPTAK solutions fluoresce weakly, it is important to note that there isnegligible PL arising at λ_(ex) that give rise to peak absorption. Inthis context, it is worth mentioning that the solution absorptionspectrum of PTAK is quite similar to that of a thin film of neutral,regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene)—a well-studied poly(thiophene)derivative, P3HT—which is also known to have low PL quantum yields.(Guo, S.; Ruderer, M. A.; Rawolle, M.; Korstgens, V.; Birkenstock, C.;Perlich, J.; Muller-Buschbaum, P. Evolution of Lateral Structures Duringthe Functional Stack Build-up of P3ht:Pcbm-Based Bulk HeterojunctionSolar Cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2013, 5, 8581-90; Roehling, J.D.; Arslan, I.; Moulé, A. J. Controlling Microstructure inPoly(3-Hexylthiophene) Nanofibers. J. Mater. Chem. 2012, 22, 2498-2506;Yamagata, H.; Spano, F. C. Interplay between Intrachain and InterchainInteractions in Semiconducting Polymer Assemblies: The HJ-AggregateModel. J. Chem. Phys. 2012, 136, 184901; Clark, J.; Chang, J.-F.; Spano,F. C.; Friend, R. H.; Silva, C. Determining Exciton Bandwidth and FilmMicrostructure in Polythiophene Films Using Linear AbsorptionSpectroscopy. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2009, 94, 163306).

FIG. 13C and FIG. 13D show PL maps from solutions of oppositely-chargedCPE complexes (CPECs) at the specified polycation:polyanion molar chargeratios. Here, the PFPI concentration has been fixed at 1 mg/mL, and thecharge ratio is varied by varying the concentration of PTAK. The 2D PLmap for the 1:0.01 CPEC (FIG. 13C) shows the characteristic PFPIemission band, but in addition, the PTAK region at emission wavelengths(λ_(em))>550 nm now also shows several PL bands. First, there is PTAK PLpeaked in a narrow λ_(ex) range corresponding to the excitation oflow-energy PFPI chromophores; as such, this PTAK band falls on the samehorizontal line (λ_(ex)=constant) as PFPI, labeled with a red dashedline. Second, there is measurable PL coming from PTAK throughout itsabsorption band. Control PTAK solution at this concentration do not showany intensity on this contrast scale.

When the charge ratio is further increased to 1:0.25, the solution phaseseparates into a liquid phase and a dense CPE network phase, whichresembles a loose precipitate. The PL map of the solid phase is shownherein. FIG. 13D shows the PL of the solution phase at this chargeratio. The FIG. 13D shows that PFPI PL has been substantially quenched.Concomitantly, PTAK PL is substantially enhanced both over the λ_(ex)that give rise to PFPI PL. Additionally, PTAK PL arising from the bulkof its absorption (λ_(ex)>450 nm) is now quite strong, in stark contrastto the weak PL from the control PTAK solution at the same nominalconcentration (FIG. 13B).

To understand the difference between the steady-state PTAK photophysicsin isolation vs. as part of a CPEC, we have displayed representative ODspectra of PTAK in isolation vs. in the complexed state in FIG. 14A.Both samples show comparable OD magnitudes; however, there are notabledifferences. The isolated PTAK spectrum is slightly red-shifted relativeto the CPEC, and the latter has enhanced oscillator strength over themain excitonic absorption band.

To quantify differences in PL intensities between the different PTAKsamples, FIG. 14B shows the PL excitation (PLE) spectrum for differentcharge ratios exclusively in the PTAK emission region, generated byplotting the PL intensity at λ_(em) close to the peak of the PTAKemission spectrum as a function of λ_(ex). In the CPEC, there is clearenhancement in PTAK PL precisely at λ_(ex) that give rise to strong PLfrom PFPI (also seen in FIG. 13A and FIG. 13C), both at the relativelysharp band at λ_(ex)˜420 nm and at lower wavelengths. This enhancementin PTAK's PL precisely at λ_(ex) that give rise to strong PFP PL is evenmore clear at lower concentrations, due to a more uniform spatialdistribution of excited states; this is shown herein. Without beingbound by theory, the combination of the following observationsconstitutes strong evidence of EET from PFPI to PTAK: a) PTAK PLenhancement tracks the PFPI PLE intensity as a function of λ_(ex); b)PFPI emission is progressively quenched with increasing PTAKconcentrations. Without being bound by theory, this then directlyimplies that oppositely-charged PFPI and PTAK readily form asupramolecular complex in aqueous solution, leading to efficient EETfrom the donor to the acceptor CPE. Without being bound by theory,photoexcited electron transfer from PFPI to PTAK can be ruled out as aprimary quenching mechanism for PFPI PL, as this would produce electronpolarons on PTAK that would not give rise to enhanced PL.

Closer inspection of FIG. 14B shows a striking result: The PTAK PLintensity in isolation is approximately two orders of magnitude lowerthan that of PTAK in a CPEC solution. To elucidate what is responsiblefor such a drastic difference in PL quantum yields, in FIG. 15A we haveplotted normalized PTAK emission spectra exciting at λ_(ex)=450 nm. Thisλ_(ex) was chosen because at longer wavelengths, the very weak PL signalto noise ratio of isolated PTAK becomes too low for quantitativeanalysis, though the same trends persist regardless of λ_(ex).

FIG. 15A shows PL spectra of control PTAK solutions, and FIG. 15B showsemission spectra from CPEC solutions corresponding to the same nominalPTAK concentrations as the controls in (A). 0-0 and 0-1 vibronic peakpositions are labeled in bold. FIG. 15A demonstrates that the apparent0-0/0-1 peak ratio is less than unity for all three PTAK concentrations(corresponding to the three CPEC charge ratios), and the ratioprogressively decreases with concentration. Without being bound bytheory, we interpret the peak red shift with increasing concentration asa signature of enhanced inter-chain π-stacking. In stark contrast, theapparent 0-0/0-1 ratio is larger than unity for PTAK when it iscomplexed to PFPI (FIG. 15B), with a negligible change as the PTAKconcentration is increased.

To understand emission spectra from conjugated polymers, the molecularexciton model, developed for dye aggregates by Kasha (Spano, F. C.;Silva, C. H- and J-Aggregate Behavior in Polymeric Semiconductors. Annu.Rev. Phys. Chem. 2014, 65, 477-500) and extended to polymers by othershas been found to be particularly useful. Within this model, the 0-0/0-1vibronic ratio <1 in chromophore aggregates is associated with H-typeexcitons, which have low emission quantum yields. Without being bound bytheory, we interpret the weak emission from isolated PTAK solutions witha 0-0/0-1 ratio <1 as arising from predominantly H-like emitting states,which are primarily physically associated with π-stacked inter-chainspecies. (Schwartz, B. J. Conjugated Polymers as Molecular Materials:How Chain Conformation and Film Morphology Influence Energy Transfer andInterchain Interactions. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2003, 54, 141-172).Without being bound by theory, the latter might arise due tointeractions between separate chains or between two or more distinctsegments of the same coiled chain. Without being bound by theory, thisinterpretation is consistent with the observation that the absorptionspectrum of isolated PTAK is similar to that of a P3HT film. Suchabsorption in P3HT has previously been shown to give rise to H-likeemitting states. (Clark, J.; Chang, J.-F.; Spano, F. C.; Friend, R. H.;Silva, C. Determining Exciton Bandwidth and Film Microstructure inPolythiophene Films Using Linear Absorption Spectroscopy. Appl. Phys.Lett. 2009, 94, 163306; Spano, F. C.; Clark, J.; Silva, C.; Friend, R.H. Determining Exciton Coherence from the Photoluminescence SpectralLine Shape in Poly(3-Hexylthiophene) Thin Films. J. Chem. Phys. 2009,130, 074904).

On the other hand, a 0-0/0-1 ratio approximately equal to or greaterthan unity is primarily associated with excitons having substantialJ-like character, and which give rise to strongly allowed lightemission. (Yamagata, H.; Spano, F. C. Vibronic Coupling in QuantumWires: Applications to Polydiacetylene. J. Chem. Phys. 2011, 135,054906). Without being bound by theory, when complexed to PFPI, the factthat PTAK PL spectra show nominal 0-0/0-1 ratios ˜1, and the fact thatthe PL intensity is several orders of magnitude larger in the complexedstate, leads us to conclude that within a CPEC, PTAK excitons areprimarily J-like. Without being bound by theory, thus,oppositely-charged complex formation leads to emergent excitonic statesin the regioregular PTAK that are wholly absent for the EET acceptor CPEin isolation.

To further test this interpretation, we have measured time-resolved PL(TRPL) via time-correlated single-photon counting. FIG. 16A shows theTRPL decays on a semi-logarithmic scale of a pure PFPI solution alongwith CPECs and PTAK controls excited at 420 nm with emission collectedat 442 nm, which corresponds to the peak of the PL spectrum of PFPI. Wefind that for the lowest charge ratio CPEC, there is a moderate yetsignificant drop in intensity, which tracks the steady state PL. Ablowup of this data on a linear scale is shown in the inset.

At the two higher ratios, there is pronounced quenching of the PFPIemission, consistent with steady-state results. FIG. 16B shows TRPLdecays excited at the same λ_(ex) but with emission detected at 615 nm,strictly corresponding to PTAK PL. This panel shows that across all PTAKconcentrations, there is a drastic increase in the intensity of emissionfrom the CPEC relative to the corresponding PTAK controls. The increasein fluorescence is several times greater than what would be expectedjust from the increase in total polymer concentration in solution. Whilethis change in total fluorescence intensity tracks the decrease in CPECfluorescence at 442 nm (quenching of PFPI emission), the fractionalchanges in the magnitudes are not similar. In fact, the increase influorescence at 615 nm between concentrations is approximately 5-10times larger than the associated decrease in PFPI emission, depending onthe sample. Thus, in addition to EET, the increase in the PL lifetime ofPTAK bound to PFPI is again consistent with emission from J-like states.

Finally, to better understand the PL that comes from PTAK excitonsgenerated in the red tail of the CPEC absorption—corresponding to themost delocalized excited states—FIG. 16C displays TRPL curves collectedat λ_(ex)=600 nm and λ_(em)=680 nm. As in FIG. 16B, we again see thatthe total fluorescence of the CPECs far exceeds what would be expectedjust by increasing the total polyelectrolyte concentration. Withoutbeing bound by theory, this suggests that whether excited by energytransfer from PFPI or excited directly, PTAK excitons are relaxingthrough the same highly emissive J-like excitons. Therefore, withoutbeing bound by theory, complexation appears to preclude strong formationof intra- and inter-chain H-aggregation, leading to J-like statesinstead.

In an effort to connect the photophysics to the physical structure ofthe complexes, we have characterized CPECs at varying charge ratiosusing both dynamic (visible) light scattering (DLS) (Chu, B.; Wang, Z.;Yu, J. Dynamic Light Scattering Study of Internal Motions of PolymerCoils in Dilute Solution. Macromolecules 1991, 24, 6832-6838;Tsunashima, Y.; Nemoto, N.; Kurata, M. Dynamic Light Scattering Studiesof Polymer Solutions. 2. Translational Diffusion and IntramolecularMotions of Polystyrene in Dilute Solutions at the Θ Temperature.Macromolecules 1983, 16, 1184-1188; Sedlák, M. The Ionic StrengthDependence of the Structure and Dynamics of Polyelectrolyte Solutions asSeen by Light Scattering: The Slow Mode Dilemma. J. Chem. Phys. 1996,105, 10123) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) (Combet, J.;Lorchat, P.; Rawiso, M. Salt-Free Aqueous Solutions of Polyelectrolytes:Small Angle X-Ray and Neutron Scattering Characterization. Eur. Phys.J.: Spec. Top. 2012, 213, 243-265; Glatter, O.; Kratky, O. Small AngleX-Ray Scattering; Academic Press, 1982). In DLS measurements, wecollected self-beating intensity autocorrelation functions (ACFs) g¹(t)at scattering angles of 20° (Berne, B. J.; Pecora, R. Dynamic LightScattering: With Applications to Chemistry, Biology, and Physics; DoverPublications, 2013). FIG. 17 shows a composite ACF plot of CPECsolutions at varying charge ratios, as well as relaxation timedistribution functions obtained using the CONTIN algorithm, whichperforms a regularized inverse Laplace transform. (Scotti, A.; Liu, W.;Hyatt, J. S.; Herman, E. S.; Choi, H. S.; Kim, J. W.; Lyon, L. A.;Gasser, U.; Fernandez-Nieves, A. The Contin Algorithm and ItsApplication to Determine the Size Distribution of Microgel Suspensions.J. Chem. Phys. 2015, 142, 234905).

DLS relaxation times, associated diffusion coefficients and meanhydrodynamic radii are summarized in Table 1. Inspection of FIG. 17demonstrates that the mean relaxation time for the lowest charge ratiois longest, which means that the mean size is largest. The 1:0.01 chargeratio yielded a predominantly bimodal distribution with twocharacteristic particle sizes, the smaller of which was 87 nm. Particlescorresponding to the smaller of the two sizes shrank progressively withincreasing charge ratio to 46 nm at 1:0.05 and 42 nm at 1:0.25.Additionally, we find that for all three charge ratios, we observe largeparticle sizes in excess of 100 nm. Without being bound by theory, theseresults imply that as more PTAK is added to PFPI, the mean complex sizeprogressively shrinks as charges on one polymer are compensated by itsoppositely charged partner. Without being bound by theory, this ispossibly due to a propensity to lower the interfacial area between thehydrophobic conjugated backbones of the CPEs and the highly polarsolvent as the effective charge density of the complex diminishes.Without being bound by theory, the decrease in size is consistent with aslight red shift in PTAK PL when complexed to PFPI (FIG. 15B), which weattribute with a mild increase in inter-chain π-stacking.

TABLE 1 CONTIN fit results of DLS autocorrelation functions of CPECsolutions at 20° scattering angle. PFP3I:PTAK Relaxation Relative SizeMolar Charge time Distribution Ratio (us) R_(H) (nm)^(a) (%) 1:0.01 3.3× 10⁴ 87 47.4 3.7 × 10³ 10 7.9 1.3 × 10⁵ 342 44.7 1:0.05 1.7 × 10⁴ 4655.6 6.8 × 10⁴ 180 44.4 1:0.25 1.6 × 10⁴ 42 76.4 1.7 × 10⁵ 462 23.7^(a)Intensity-weighted hydrodynamic radius from dynamic lightscattering.

To characterize the electron density contrast between water and CPECs asa function of charge ratio, we carried out synchrotron solution SAXSmeasurements. These results are shown in FIG. 18 on a double logarithmicplot, where we compare pure PFPI to that of the CPECs for both additionorders. We find that all the curves except the 1:0.25 CPEC exhibitsimilar limiting power law exponents at high Q, suggesting, that withoutbeing bound by theory, that interfaces internal to the CPE coil do notdiffer substantially between pure PFPI and CPECs at the lower chargeratio. At 1:0.25, without being bound by theory, the decrease in theslope could possibly be due to a more fractal internal geometry, thougha more systematic investigation of this observation is beyond the scopeof this paper.

At low Q, however, all CPEC curves show an excess in scatteringintensity relative to pure PFPI. This is reasonable, since when theoppositely charged CPEC forms, we expect that the electron densitycontrast between pure solvent and the complex will be larger than thatof the isolated CPE. Curves for 1:0.01 CPECs can be roughly capturedwith a single power law decay. In 1:0.05 CPECs curves begin to departfrom a power law as they show signs of a developing (yet relativelypoorly-defined) Guinier region at low Q. At the 1:0.25 ratio, the SAXScurve displays a hint of Guiner behavior, indicating formation of a morewell-defined CPEC particle shape relative to pure PFPI and the lowestcharge ratio complex. Without being bound by theory, taken together withDLS results, this suggests that the decrease in mean particle size atlarger charge ratios leads to solution complexes with greater packingdensity, as implied by the rise in scattering intensity at low Q.

Having characterized CPEC solutions, we now turn to examining the denseCPEC network phase. Phase separation occurs at charge ratios exceeding1:0.05. The dense phase was spread on a glass substrate as a paste andallowed to dry prior to collecting PL, which is shown in FIG. 19A-FIG.19B for two charge ratios. The first striking feature is that PL fromPFPI is effectively absent, save for a weak band at the PFPI:PTAK chargeratio of 1:0.25. There is a pronounced enhancement in PL from PTAK whenexciting between ˜320 and 420 nm. This corresponds well to the OD ofPFPI; however, PTAK has (relatively low) absorption in this region aswell, and isolated PTAK solutions also showed PL when exciting in thisregion. It is worth noting that a pure spin-coated PTAK film does notgive rise to measurable PL (not shown), which is in contrast to the CPECfilms shown in FIG. 19A-FIG. 19B.

Without being bound by theory, although we cannot rule out directexcitation of PTAK and its subsequent emission as contributing to PTAK'sPL in the 320-420 nm excitation region, there are several observationsthat suggest that this PL at least partially contains emission from PTAKexcitons that are populated directly as a result of EET from PFPI in thesolid state. First, the enhancement of PTAK PL at these λ_(ex) differsqualitatively from the solution PL shown in FIG. 14B. Second, if this PLwas simply due to pure PTAK, we would expect strong self-quenching, aswe observed in spin-coated PTAK films; this is not the case. Third, FIG.19A shows that there is an additional enhancement in PTAK PL in the1:0.063 ratio film at λ_(ex)˜410 nm, which resembles solution behavior.Without being bound by theory, taken together, we believe that a fairlysignificant fraction of PTAK PL originating from λ_(ex) between 320 nmand 420 nm is due to direct EET from PFPI to PTAK.

In both films shown in FIG. 19A-FIG. 19B, λ_(ex) between 450 nm and 600nm corresponds to a PL band that appears to roughly track the absorptionspectrum of CPEC thin films. Without being bound by theory, the factthat this PL persists for both charge ratios suggests that these PTAKchains are strongly associated with PFPI. Without being bound by theory,these observations again suggest that PTAK chains preferentiallyassociate with PFPI, and inter-PTAK π-stacking is not prevalent.

Thus it is clear that both solution and the solid state, PFPI and PTAKreadily form ionically bound complexes, which exhibit EET from PFPI toPTAK. We have also shown that in solution, PTAK excitons are convertedfrom H-like to J-like in the process of complexation with PFPI. Withincreasing charge ratio, the average complex size shrinks, but theprimary J-like excitonic states remain. According to work by Spano etal. and Barford et al., J-like excitons in conjugated polymers areprimarily viewed as arising from head-to-tail arrangements of transitiondipoles localized on each monomer unit, which together add in phase.(Yamagata, H.; Spano, F. C. Interplay between Intrachain and InterchainInteractions in Semiconducting Polymer Assemblies: The HJ-AggregateModel. J. Chem. Phys. 2012, 136, 184901; Spano, F. C.; Silva, C. H- andJ-Aggregate Behavior in Polymeric Semiconductors. Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem.2014, 65, 477-500; Yamagata, H.; Spano, F. C. Vibronic Coupling inQuantum Wires: Applications to Polydiacetylene. J. Chem. Phys. 2011,135, 054906; Barford, W.; Marcus, M. Theory of Optical Transitions inConjugated Polymers. I. Ideal Systems. J. Chem. Phys. 2014, 141, 164101;Marcus, M.; Tozer, O. R.; Barford, W. Theory of Optical Transitions inConjugated Polymers. II. Real Systems. J. Chem. Phys. 2014, 141,164102). In the limit of vanishing disorder, this leads to excitonshighly delocalized over a single polymer chain. If multiple relativelystraight chains are in proximity, excitons are expected to exhibit bothJ-like and H-like character. In the context of this model, we interpretJ-like emission from PTAK within a CPEC as arising from excitons largelydelocalized over a single chain akin to a 1D molecular wire in the lowdisorder limit. A cartoon of this is shown in FIG. 20A-FIG. 20B. Thisresult is very intriguing, as the highly delocalized nature of theintra-chain J-like exciton will lead to facile electronic energymigration down the chain and may additionally result in an interplaybetween coherent and incoherent EET. The former has been observed forconjugated polymers in room temperature solution. (Collini, E.; Scholes,G. D. Coherent Intrachain Energy Migration in a Conjugated Polymer atRoom Temperature. Science 2009, 323, 369-373). Such a combination of EETmechanisms has been invoked as possibly being essential for efficientdirectional funneling of excitons in natural light harvesting systems.(Blankenship, R. E. Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis; Wiley,2014).

Photoluminescence Excitation of a Dilute CPEC Solution.

FIG. 21 shows photoluminescence excitation (PLE) plots for a 1:0.25charge ratio CPEC at a PFPI concentration of 0.1 mg/mL. At thisconcentration, the PFPI exciton density as a function of position in thecuvette along the beam direction is significantly more uniform relativeto the 1 mg/mL solution. This leads to much improved spatial overlap ofemitted light with the cross section of the detector. Black triangleswith line show the PLE spectrum collected at λ_(em)=440 nm, whichcorresponds to PFPI emission. The gray triangles without line show PLEcollected at λ_(em)=660 nm, where PTAK exclusively emits. PFPI PLlargely follows its OD (FIG. 12B). Without being bound by theory, thefact that PTAK shows substantial enhancement in PL precisely at thewavelengths that give rise to PFPI PL constitutes strong evidence of EETfrom photoexcited to PFPI to PTAK.

Fits to PL Spectra.

In order to put a comparison of PL spectra between isolated PTAK controlsolutions and the corresponding CPEC solutions on a more quantitativefooting, we have fit spectra on a photon energy scale to a vibronicprogression. First, spectra were transformed from wavelength to energyspace by scaling the measured intensity with a factor of 1/E², where Eis the photon energy. Intensities were further divided by a factor of E³to eliminate the energy dependence of the photon density of states. Theresulting spectral intensities I were fit to a sum of Gaussian functionsto represent the different vibronic contributions to the PL envelope as

$ {I = {\sum\limits_{n = 0}^{3}{a_{n}{\exp\lbrack {{- ( {E - E_{0} + {nE}_{vib}} )^{2}}/\sigma^{2}} )}}}} \rbrack + {{const}.}$

where the a's are the Gaussian amplitudes, E₀ is the electronic origin,E_(vib) is the energy of the vibrational normal mode coupled to theelectronic transition, and σ is the width. A constant background offsetwas also included. The 0-0/0-1 vibronic intensity ratio (I₀₋₀/I₀₋₁) wascalculated as the ratio of the first and second Gaussian amplitudes. Thewidth was constrained to be constant for each vibronic peak but allowedto vary between samples. The fit results are summarized below in Table2, along with the goodness-of-fit parameter R².

TABLE 2 Gaussian fits to PL line shape in energy space. E_(vib) SampleE₀ (eV) (eV) σ (eV) I₀₋₀/I₀₋₁ R² PTAK* (1:0.05) 2.16 0.23 0.17 0.260.996 CPEC (1:0.05) 2.01 0.13 0.10 0.91 0.999 *PTAK is the control forthe corresponding CPEC (the charge ratio is indicated to the right).

Conclusions

To conclude, to the best of our knowledge we have reported on the veryfirst preparation and characterization of an oppositely chargedconjugated polyelectrolyte complex in aqueous solution capable ofelectronic energy transfer. We found that the oppositely-charged complexundergoes EET both in solution and the solid state. Importantly, we havealso found that the excitonic wavefunction of the accepterpolyelectrolyte changed qualitatively in the complex compared to thepolyelectrolyte in isolation.

Example 6

Below we discuss our work to date with a pair of model CPEs: a cationicpoly(fluorene-co-phenylene) derivative (PFPI) as the EET donor, and ananionic, regioregular poly(thiophene) derivative (PTAK) as the EETacceptor. Without being bound by theory, our results provide strongevidence that: 1) CPEs self-assemble into oppositely-charged complexesin solution that readily undergo EET, 2) complex formationsimultaneously leads to emergence of new, delocalized excitonic statesthat are completely absent in the isolated CPE solution, 3) the CPEcomplex microstructure and EET rates can controllable via the chargeratio, use of ionic surfactants and excess ions, and 4) CPE complexescan be encapsulated within lipid vesicles.

The chemical structures of PFPI and PTAK are shown in FIG. 22A. FIG. 22Bmakes it clear that there is spectral overlap between PFPIphotoluminescence and PTAK optical density, making EET thermodynamicallyallowed. FIG. 22C shows photoluminescence excitation spectra of anaqueous PFPI:PTAK complex at a 1:0.25 molar charge ratio at two fixedemission wavelengths corresponding exclusively to emission from PFPI andPTAK. Without being bound by theory, the fact that the PTAKphotoluminescence excitation spectrum closely tracks absorption of PFPIis very strong evidence of EET from PFPI to PTAK in solution. As thecharge ratio is increased by keeping the PFPI concentration fixed and byincreasing the PTAK concentration, PFPI fluorescence is progressivelyquenched.

Without being bound by theory, further evidence of EET from PFPI to PTAKis shown in FIG. 23A, which displays time-resolved PL decays primarilyexciting in the PFPI absorption band and collecting emission where onlyPTAK emits. We find that complexed PTAK emission increases by two ordersof magnitude relative to in isolation. Without being bound by theory,this implies that photoinduced electron transfer from PFPI to PTAK canbe ruled out as the quenching mechanism for PFPI emission, as anionicstates of PTAK would not give rise to increased emission in the complex.However, without being bound by theory the drastic increase in PTAK PLquantum yield cannot be explained by EET from PFPI alone. Without beingbound by theory, the implication is that complex formation leads toemergent excitonic states in PTAK that are wholly absent in isolation.To further characterize this change, we have plotted normalizedphotoluminescence spectra of PTAK in isolation (FIG. 23B) and whencomplexed to PFPI (FIG. 23C) as a function of relative charge ratio. Thenominal vibronic 0-0/0-1 intensity ratio is <1 for isolated PTAK andis >1 for PTAK complexed to PFPI. Without being bound by theory,together with the change in the photoluminescence quantum yield, themolecular exciton model implies that complex formation for PTAK leads toconversion of primarily H-like (inter-chain) to J-like (intra-chain)excitons. Without being bound by theory, the intra-chain excitondelocalized along the PTAK chain has the potential to participate incoherent EET; electronic coherence has previously been demonstrated forsingle conjugated polymer chains in solution. Without being bound bytheory, coherence leads to rapid EET; we hypothesize that highlydelocalized intra-chain states may significantly increase EET rates.

Without being bound by theory, we may reasonably hypothesize that thecomplex formation, microstructure, and thus the EET efficiency maydepend on the excess ion concentration and thus the average localelectric field. We have measured EET efficiencies for an aqueousPFPI:PTAK complex at a 1:0.25 charge ratio as a function of KFconcentration, shown in FIG. 24. What we find is that the efficiency canvary significantly for small excess ion concentrations, and that thischange is sensitive to the thermal history of complex formation. We havealso found that the type of simple excess anion across the halogenseries can be used to vary the EET rate (not shown).

The observation that the thermal history has a strong effect on complexformation led us to investigate this further. FIG. 25A shows the PL oftwo CPE complexes prepared at room temperature and at 70° C. The datashow that, although there is a strong enthalpic and entropic drivingforce to polyelectrolyte complex formation, there is a significantactivation free energy barrier. Specifically, heating the complex leadsto additional quenching of the PFPI (which is already quenched relativeto isolated PFPI), and PTAK PL undergoes a drastic increase. Further,FIG. 25B shows that complexation exhibits relatively slow dynamics.Without being bound by theory, this suggests that we can influence theassembly process and likely the complex microstructure with a ternaryagent introduced during a specific time point along the complexevolution trajectory. We note that the complex in FIG. 25B was heatedfor a shorter duration than in FIG. 25A, which explains the differencein PTAK PL intensity.

Since we are interested in assembly of panchromatic, multi-componentsupramolecular complexes, we have investigated ternary macromolecularinteractions. Our work has focused on the influence of self-assemblingionic surfactants and dye molecules on CPE complex formation. FIG. 26Ashows that micelles based on anionic surfactants can be used to decouplethe CPE complex, and that the polycation/polyanion charge ratio can beused to tune the relative strength of CPE-CPE and CPE-micelleinteractions. FIG. 26B shows the evolution of the macromolecularrelaxation time distribution and thus complex structure extracted fromdynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements using CONTIN as we passthrough the micelle phase transition. We have also studied ternarycomplexes of two oppositely charged CPEs and a phthalocyanine-basedionic dye, which, due to its lower bandgap, serves as a natural energyacceptor relative to PTAK, thus extending the downhill EET funnel. FIG.26C shows that varying the dye concentration for a fixed PFPI:PTAK ratioleads to nonmonotonic quenching of both PFPI and PTAK PL. Without beingbound by theory, at larger concentrations, all PL is quenched presumablydue to EET to the dye, which emits weakly due to H-aggregation.

Finally, we have also demonstrated the ability to encapsulateoppositely-charged CPE complexes using phospholipid-based vesicles. FIG.27 shows a photoluminescence microscope image of a PFPI:PTAK complex ata 1:0.25 charge ratio enveloped by membranous vesicles. Spatiallocalization of a CPE complex constitutes the first step toencapsulation of a CPE-based artificial photosystem.

The various methods and techniques described above provide a number ofways to carry out the application. Of course, it is to be understoodthat not necessarily all objectives or advantages described can beachieved in accordance with any particular embodiment described herein.Thus, for example, those skilled in the art will recognize that themethods can be performed in a manner that achieves or optimizes oneadvantage or group of advantages as taught herein without necessarilyachieving other objectives or advantages as taught or suggested herein.A variety of alternatives are mentioned herein. It is to be understoodthat some preferred embodiments specifically include one, another, orseveral features, while others specifically exclude one, another, orseveral features, while still others mitigate a particular feature byinclusion of one, another, or several advantageous features.

Furthermore, the skilled artisan will recognize the applicability ofvarious features from different embodiments. Similarly, the variouselements, features and steps discussed above, as well as other knownequivalents for each such element, feature or step, can be employed invarious combinations by one of ordinary skill in this art to performmethods in accordance with the principles described herein. Among thevarious elements, features, and steps some will be specifically includedand others specifically excluded in diverse embodiments.

Although the application has been disclosed in the context of certainembodiments and examples, it will be understood by those skilled in theart that the embodiments of the application extend beyond thespecifically disclosed embodiments to other alternative embodimentsand/or uses and modifications and equivalents thereof.

Preferred embodiments of this application are described herein,including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out theapplication. Variations on those preferred embodiments will becomeapparent to those of ordinary skill in the art upon reading theforegoing description. It is contemplated that skilled artisans canemploy such variations as appropriate, and the application can bepracticed otherwise than specifically described herein. Accordingly,many embodiments of this application include all modifications andequivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended heretoas permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of theabove-described elements in all possible variations thereof isencompassed by the application unless otherwise indicated herein orotherwise clearly contradicted by context.

All patents, patent applications, publications of patent applications,and other material, such as articles, books, specifications,publications, documents, things, and/or the like, referenced herein arehereby incorporated herein by this reference in their entirety for allpurposes, excepting any prosecution file history associated with same,any of same that is inconsistent with or in conflict with the presentdocument, or any of same that may have a limiting affect as to thebroadest scope of the claims now or later associated with the presentdocument. By way of example, should there be any inconsistency orconflict between the description, definition, and/or the use of a termassociated with any of the incorporated material and that associatedwith the present document, the description, definition, and/or the useof the term in the present document shall prevail.

It is to be understood that the embodiments of the application disclosedherein are illustrative of the principles of the embodiments of theapplication. Other modifications that can be employed can be within thescope of the application. Thus, by way of example, but not oflimitation, alternative configurations of the embodiments of theapplication can be utilized in accordance with the teachings herein.Accordingly, embodiments of the present application are not limited tothat precisely as shown and described.

Various embodiments of the invention are described above in the DetailedDescription. While these descriptions directly describe the aboveembodiments, it is understood that those skilled in the art may conceivemodifications and/or variations to the specific embodiments shown anddescribed herein. Any such modifications or variations that fall withinthe purview of this description are intended to be included therein aswell. Unless specifically noted, it is the intention of the inventorsthat the words and phrases in the specification and claims be given theordinary and accustomed meanings to those of ordinary skill in theapplicable art(s).

The foregoing description of various embodiments of the invention knownto the applicant at this time of filing the application has beenpresented and is intended for the purposes of illustration anddescription. The present description is not intended to be exhaustivenor limit the invention to the precise form disclosed and manymodifications and variations are possible in the light of the aboveteachings. The embodiments described serve to explain the principles ofthe invention and its practical application and to enable others skilledin the art to utilize the invention in various embodiments and withvarious modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated.Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to theparticular embodiments disclosed for carrying out the invention.

While particular embodiments of the present invention have been shownand described, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that,based upon the teachings herein, changes and modifications may be madewithout departing from this invention and its broader aspects and,therefore, the appended claims are to encompass within their scope allsuch changes and modifications as are within the true spirit and scopeof this invention.

1. A light-harvesting antenna (LHA), comprising: a conjugatedpolyelectrolyte (CPE) complex (CPEC) comprising a donor CPE and anacceptor CPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPE are an electronicenergy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair.
 2. The LHA of claim 1,wherein the CPE complex (CPEC) further comprises a surfactant molecule.3. The LHA of claim 2, wherein the surfactant molecule is ionic,charged, zwitterionic, non-ionic, lipophilic, lipophobic, hydrophobic,hydrophilic, amphiphilic or amphipathic.
 4. The LHA of claim 1, whereinthe CPE complex (CPEC) further comprises a second or more donor CPEsand/or a second or more acceptor CPEs.
 5. The LHA of claim 1, whereinthe donor CPE and the acceptor CPE are oppositely charged.
 6. The LHA ofclaim 1, wherein the CPE complex (CPEC) is formed via electrostaticinteractions between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE.
 7. The LHA ofclaim 1, wherein the CPE complex (CPEC) is formed via non-covalentinteractions between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE.
 8. The LHA ofclaim 1, wherein the donor CPE is a poly([fluorene]-alt-co-[phenylene])(PFP) or a derivative thereof.
 9. The LHA of claim 1, wherein theacceptor CPE is a poly(alkylcarboxythiophene) (PTAK) or a derivativethereof.
 10. The LHA of claim 1, wherein the acceptor CPE is aregiorandom PTAK or regioregular PTAK, or a benzodithiophene derivativeof PTAK, or a combination thereof.
 11. The LHA of claim 1, wherein thecharge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE is about 1:0.25,1:0.5, 1:1, or 1:2.
 12. The LHA of claim 1, wherein the charge ratiobetween the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE is about from 1:0.1 to 1:0.2,from 1:0.2 to 1:0.3, from 1:0.3 to 1:0.4, from 1:0.4 to 1:0.5, from1:0.5 to 1:0.6, from 1:0.6 to 1:0.7, from 1:0.7 to 1:0.8, from 1:0.8 to1:0.9, or from 1:0.9 to 1:1.0.
 13. The LHA of claim 1, wherein thecharge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE is about from1:1 to 1:2, from 1:2 to 1:3, from 1:3 to 1:4, from 1:4 to 1:5, from 1:5to 1:6, from 1:6 to 1:7, from 1:7 to 1:8, from 1:8 to 1:9, or from 1:9to 1.10.
 14. The LHA of claim 1, encapsulated in a membrane, liposome,or vesicle.
 15. The LHA of claim 14, wherein the membrane isoleoylphosphatidycholine or a derivative thereof.
 16. A method ofconducting photosynthesis, comprising: providing the LHA of claim 1; andusing the LHA in a photosynthetic process, thereby conductingphotosynthesis.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the photosynthesisis artificial photosynthesis.
 18. The method of claim 16, wherein thephotosynthetic process is an artificial photosynthetic process.
 19. Amethod of manufacturing a light-harvesting antenna (LHA), comprising:providing a donor CPE solution and an acceptor CPE solution, wherein thedonor CPE solution comprises a donor CPE and the acceptor CPE solutioncomprises an acceptor CPE; mixing the donor CPE solution and theacceptor CPE solution to provide a mixture of the donor CPE solution andthe acceptor CPE solution; and generating a CPE complex (CPEC) of thedonor CPE and the acceptor CPE, wherein the generated CPE complex (CPEC)is the manufactured LHA.
 20. The method of claim 19, further comprisingadjusting a charge ratio between the donor CPE and the acceptor CPE. 21.The method of claim 19, further comprising adjusting an ionic strengthin one or more of the donor CPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, orthe mixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution. 22.The method of claim 21, wherein the ionic strength is adjusted throughadjusting an amount of a halogen ion, fluorine (F) ion, chlorine (Cl)ion, bromine (Br) ion, iodine (I) ion, or astatine (At) ion, or acombination thereof.
 23. The method of claim 21, wherein the ionicstrength is adjusted through adjusting an amount of a salt, a halogensalt, KI, KF, KCl, KBr, or KAt, or a combination thereof.
 24. The methodof claim 19, wherein the mixture of the donor CPE solution and theacceptor CPE solution comprises a liquid phase and a solid phase. 25.The method of claim 24, further comprising separating the liquid phaseand the solid phase of the mixture.
 26. The method of claim 19, furthercomprising adjusting a solvent composition of one or more of the donorCPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, or the mixture of the donor CPEsolution and the acceptor CPE solution.
 27. The method of claim 26,wherein independently one or more of the solvent composition compriseswater, a nonaqueous component, or a combination thereof.
 28. The methodof claim 19, further comprising adjusting a sidechain charge density ofone or more of the donor CPE or the acceptor CPE.
 29. The method ofclaim 19, further comprising adjusting a pH of one or more of the donorCPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, or the mixture of the donor CPEsolution and the acceptor CPE solution.
 30. The method of claim 19,further comprising adjusting a concentration of a surfactant molecule inone or more of the donor CPE solution, the acceptor CPE solution, or themixture of the donor CPE solution and the acceptor CPE solution.
 31. Areaction center (RC) comprising a complex comprising a water-solublephthalocyanine-based donor and a water-soluble fullerene-based acceptor.32. The RC of claim 31, wherein the water-soluble phthalocyanine-baseddonor is a metal-free phthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid (TSPc) or aderivative thereof.
 33. A method of conducting photosynthesis,comprising: providing the RC of claim 31; and using the RC in aphotosynthetic process, thereby conducting photosynthesis.
 34. Themethod of claim 33, wherein the photosynthesis is artificialphotosynthesis.
 35. The method of claim 33, wherein the photosyntheticprocess is an artificial photosynthetic process.
 36. An artificialphotosystem, comprising: one or more light-harvesting antenna (LHA)comprising a conjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) complex (CPEC) comprisinga donor CPE and an acceptor CPE, wherein the donor CPE and acceptor CPEare an electronic energy transfer (EET) donor/acceptor pair.
 37. Theartificial photosystem of claim 36, comprising more than one LHA thatform an LHA array.
 38. The artificial photosystem of claim 36, furthercomprising a reaction center (RC), wherein the RC and the LHA form asupercomplex.
 39. The artificial photosystem of claim 38, wherein the RCis electronically linked to the LHA.
 40. The artificial photosystem ofclaim 36, further comprising an oxidizing catalyst.
 41. The artificialphotosystem of claim 36, further comprising a reducing catalyst.
 42. Theartificial photosystem of claim 36, encapsulated in a membrane,liposome, or vesicle.
 43. The artificial photosystem of claim 42,wherein the membrane is oleoylphosphatidycholine or a derivativethereof.
 44. A method of conducting photosynthesis, comprising:providing the artificial photosystem of claim 36; and using theartificial photosystem in a photosynthetic process, thereby conductingphotosynthesis.
 45. The method of claim 44, wherein the photosynthesisis artificial photosynthesis.
 46. The method of claim 44, wherein thephotosynthetic process is an artificial photosynthetic process.